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Pope Francis

Pope Francis (Latin: Franciscus; Italian: Francesco; Spanish: Francisco; born Jorge Mario Bergoglio,^[b] 17 December 1936) is the head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State since 2013. Francis is the first pope to be a member of the Society of Jesus, the first from the Americas, the first from the Southern Hemisphere, and the first pope from outside Europe since Gregory III, a Syrian who reigned in the 8th century.

Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Bergoglio worked for a time as a bouncer and a janitor as a young man before training to be a chemist and working as a technician in a food science laboratory. After recovering from a severe illness, he was inspired to join the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) in 1958. He was ordained a Catholic priest in 1969, and from 1973 to 1979 was the Jesuit provincial superior in Argentina. He became the archbishop of Buenos Aires in 1998 and was created a cardinal in 2001 by Pope John Paul II. He led the Argentine Church during the December 2001 riots in Argentina. The administrations of Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner considered him to be a political rival. Following the resignation of Pope Benedict XVI on 28 February 2013, a papal conclave elected Bergoglio as his successor on 13 March. He chose Francis as his papal name in honor of Saint Francis of Assisi. Throughout his public life, Francis has been noted for his humility, emphasis on God’s mercy, international visibility as pope, concern for the poor, and commitment to interreligious dialogue. He is credited with having a less formal approach to the papacy than his predecessors, for instance choosing to reside in the Domus Sanctae Marthae guesthouse rather than in the papal apartments of the Apostolic Palace used by previous popes.

Francis maintains the traditional views of the Church regarding abortion, clerical celibacy, and the ordination of women, but has initiated dialogue on the possibility of deaconesses and has made women full members of dicasteries in the Roman Curia. He maintains that the Church should be more open and welcoming for members of the LGBT community. Francis is an outspoken critic of unbridled capitalism and free market economics, consumerism, and overdevelopment,^[2] and advocates taking action on climate change,^[3] a focus of his papacy with the promulgation of Laudato si’. In international diplomacy, he helped to restore full diplomatic relations between the United States and Cuba and supported the cause of refugees during the European and Central American migrant crises. Since 2018, he has been an opponent of populism.^[4]^[5] He has faced criticism from theological conservatives on many questions, including his promotion of ecumenism, as well as admitting civilly divorced and remarried Catholics to communion with the publication of Amoris laetitia.^[6]

Early years[edit source]

Jorge Mario Bergoglio (fourth boy from the left on the third row from the top) at age 12, while studying at the Salesian College (c. 1948–49)

Jorge Mario Bergoglio was born on 17 December 1936^[7] in Flores,^[8] a neighborhood of Buenos Aires.^[7] He was the eldest^[9] of five children of Mario José Bergoglio (1908–1959) and Regina María Sívori (1911–1981). Mario Bergoglio was an Italian immigrant accountant^[10] born in Portacomaro (Province of Asti) in Italy’s Piedmont region. Regina Sívori^[11] was a housewife born in Buenos Aires to a family of northern Italian (Piedmontese-Genoese) origin.^[12]^[13]^[14] Mario José’s family left Italy in 1929 to escape the fascist rule of Benito Mussolini.^[15] According to María Elena Bergoglio (b. 1948), the pope’s only living sibling, they did not emigrate for economic reasons.^[16] His other siblings were Alberto Horacio (1942–2010), Oscar Adrián (1938–deceased) and Marta Regina (1940–2007).^[17]^[18] Two great-nephews, Antonio and Joseph, died in a traffic collision.^[19]^[20] His niece, Cristina Bergoglio, is a painter based in Madrid, Spain.^[21]^[22]

In the sixth grade, Bergoglio attended Wilfrid Barón de los Santos Ángeles, a school of the Salesians of Don Bosco, in Ramos Mejía, Buenos Aires Province. He attended the technical secondary school Escuela Técnica Industrial N° 27 Hipólito Yrigoyen,^[23] named after a past Argentine president, and graduated with a chemical technician’s diploma^[7]^[24]^[25] (not a master’s degree in chemistry, as some media outlets incorrectly reported).^[26]^[27] In that capacity, he spent several years working in the food section of Hickethier-Bachmann Laboratory,^[28] where he worked under Esther Ballestrino. Prior to working as a chemical technician, Bergoglio had also worked as a bar bouncer and as a janitor sweeping floors.^[29]^[30]

When he was 21 years old, he suffered from life-threatening pneumonia and three cysts. He had part of a lung excised shortly afterwards.^[23]^[31] Bergoglio has been a lifelong supporter of San Lorenzo de Almagro football club.^[32] Bergoglio is also a fan of the films of Tita Merello,^[33] neorealism, and tango dancing, with a fondness for the traditional music of Argentina and Uruguay known as the milonga.^[33]

Jesuit (1958–2013)[edit source]

Bergoglio found his vocation to the priesthood while he was on his way to celebrate the Spring Day. He passed by a church to go to confession, and was inspired by the priest.^[34] Bergoglio studied at the archdiocesan seminary, Inmaculada Concepción Seminary, in Villa Devoto, Buenos Aires, and, after three years, entered the Society of Jesus as a novice on 11 March 1958.^[33] Bergoglio has said that, as a young seminarian, he had a crush on a girl he met and briefly doubted about continuing the religious career.^[35] As a Jesuit novice he studied humanities in Santiago, Chile.^[36] After his novitiate in the Society of Jesus, Bergoglio officially became a Jesuit on 12 March 1960, when he made the religious profession of the initial, perpetual vows of poverty, chastity and obedience of a member of the order.^[37]^[38]

In 1960, Bergoglio obtained a licentiate in philosophy from the Colegio Máximo de San José in San Miguel, Buenos Aires Province. He taught literature and psychology at the Colegio de la Inmaculada Concepción, a high school in Santa Fe, from 1964 to 1965. In 1966, he taught the same courses at the Colegio del Salvador in Buenos Aires.^[7]^[39]

Presbyterate (1969–1992)[edit source]

In 1967 Bergoglio began his theological studies at Facultades de Filosofía y Teología de San Miguel and on 13 December 1969 was ordained to the priesthood by Archbishop Ramón José Castellano. He served as the master of novices for the province there and became a professor of theology.^[40]

Bergoglio completed his final stage of spiritual training as a Jesuit, tertianship, at Alcalá de Henares, Spain, and took final, solemn vows as a Jesuit, including the fourth vow of obedience to missioning by the pope, on 22 April 1973.^[38] He was named provincial superior of the Society of Jesus in Argentina that July, for a six-year term which ended in 1979.^[7]^[41] In 1973, shortly after being named provincial superior, He had made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem but his stay was shortened by the outbreak of the Yom Kippur War.^[42] After the completion of his term of office, in 1980 he was named the rector of the Philosophical and Theological Faculty of San Miguel where he had studied.^[43] Before taking up this new appointment, he spent the first three months of 1980 in Ireland to learn English, staying at the Jesuit Centre at the Milltown Institute of Theology and Philosophy, Dublin.^[44] He served at San Miguel for six years until 1986^[7] when, at the discretion of Jesuit superior-general Peter Hans Kolvenbach, he was replaced by someone more in tune with the worldwide trend in the Society of Jesus toward emphasizing social justice, rather than his emphasis on popular religiosity and direct pastoral work.^[45]

He spent several months at the Sankt Georgen Graduate School of Philosophy and Theology in Frankfurt, Germany, considering possible dissertation topics.^[46] He settled on exploring the work of the German / Italian theologian Romano Guardini, particularly his study of ‘Contrast’ published in his 1925 work Der Gegensatz. However, he was to return to Argentina prematurely to serve as a confessor and spiritual director to the Jesuit community in Córdoba.^[47] In Germany, he saw the painting Mary, Untier of Knots in Augsburg and brought a copy of the painting to Argentina where it has become an important Marian devotion.^[48]^[c] As a student at the Salesian school, Bergoglio was mentored by Ukrainian Greek Catholic priest Stefan Czmil. Bergoglio often rose hours before his classmates to serve Mass for Czmil.^[51]^[52]

Bergoglio was asked in 1992 by Jesuit authorities not to reside in Jesuit houses, because of continued tensions with Jesuit leaders and scholars, a sense of Bergoglio’s “dissent,” views of his Catholic orthodoxy and his opposition to theology of liberation, and his work as auxiliary bishop of Buenos Aires.^[53]^[54]^[55] As a bishop he was no longer subject to his Jesuit superior.^[56] From then on, he did not visit Jesuit houses and was in “virtual estrangement from the Jesuits” until after his election as pope.^[45]^[53]

Pre-papal episcopate (1992–2013)[edit source]

Bergoglio was named Auxiliary Bishop of Buenos Aires in 1992 and consecrated on 27 June 1992 as titular bishop of Auca,^[7]^[57] with Cardinal Antonio Quarracino, archbishop of Buenos Aires, serving as principal consecrator.^[58] He chose as his episcopal motto Miserando atque eligendo.^[59] It is drawn from Saint Bede‘s homily on Matthew 9:9–13: “because he saw him through the eyes of mercy and chose him”.^[60]

On 3 June 1997, Bergoglio was appointed coadjutor archbishop of Buenos Aires with right of succession. Upon Quarracino’s death on 28 February 1998, Bergoglio became metropolitan archbishop of Buenos Aires. In that role, Bergoglio created new parishes and restructured the archdiocese administrative offices, led pro-life initiatives, and created a commission on divorces.^[7]^[61] One of Bergoglio’s major initiatives as archbishop was to increase the Church’s presence in the slums of Buenos Aires. Under his leadership, the number of priests assigned to work in the slums doubled.^[62] This work led to him being called the “Slum Bishop”.^[63]

Early in his time as archbishop of Buenos Aires, Bergoglio sold off the archdiocese’s shares in multiple banks and turned its accounts into those of a normal customer in international banks. The shares in banks had led the local church to a propensity towards high spending, and the archdiocese was nearing bankruptcy as a result. As a normal customer of the bank, the church was forced into a higher fiscal discipline.^[64]

On 6 November 1998, while remaining archbishop of Buenos Aires, he was named ordinary for those Eastern Catholics in Argentina who lacked a prelate of their own church.^[58] Major Archbishop Sviatoslav Shevchuk said that Bergoglio understands the liturgy, rites, and spirituality of Shevchuk’s Greek Catholic Church and always “took care of our Church in Argentina” as ordinary for Eastern Catholics during his time as archbishop of Buenos Aires.^[52]

In 2000, Bergoglio was the only church official to reconcile with Jerónimo Podestá, a former bishop who had been suspended as a priest after opposing the Argentine Revolution military dictatorship in 1972. He defended Podestá’s wife from Vatican attacks on their marriage.^[65]^[66]^[67] That same year, Bergoglio said the Argentine Catholic Church needed “to put on garments of public penance for the sins committed during the years of the dictatorship” in the 1970s, during the Dirty War.^[68]

Bergoglio made it his custom to celebrate the Holy Thursday ritual washing of feet in places such as jails, hospitals, retirement homes or slums.^[69] In 2007, just two days after Benedict XVI issued new rules for using the liturgical forms that preceded the Second Vatican Council, Cardinal Bergoglio established a fixed place for a weekly Mass in this extraordinary form of the Roman Rite.^[70] It was celebrated weekly.^[71]

On 8 November 2005, Bergoglio was elected president of the Argentine Episcopal Conference for a three-year term (2005–08).^[72] He was reelected to another three-year term on 11 November 2008.^[73] He remained a member of that commission’s permanent governing body, president of its committee for the Pontifical Catholic University of Argentina, and a member of its liturgy committee for the care of shrines.^[58] While head of the Argentine Catholic bishops’ conference, Bergoglio issued a collective apology for his church’s failure to protect people from the Junta during the Dirty War.^[74] When he turned 75 in December 2011, Bergoglio submitted his resignation as archbishop of Buenos Aires to Pope Benedict XVI as required by canon law.^[42] Still, as he had no coadjutor archbishop, he stayed in office, waiting for an eventual replacement appointed by the Vatican.^[75]

Cardinalate (2001–2013)[edit source]

Bergoglio on 18 June 2008 giving a catechesis

At the consistory of 21 February 2001, Archbishop Bergoglio was created a cardinal by Pope John Paul II with the title of cardinal priest of San Roberto Bellarmino, a church served by Jesuits and named for one; he was formally installed in that church the following 14 October. When he traveled to Rome for the ceremony, he and his sister María Elena visited the village in northern Italy where their father was born.^[16] As cardinal, Bergoglio was appointed to five administrative positions in the Roman Curia. He was a member of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, the Congregation for the Clergy, the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life, the Pontifical Council for the Family and the Commission for Latin America. Later that year, when Cardinal Edward Egan returned to New York following the September 11 attacks, Bergoglio replaced him as relator (recording secretary) in the Synod of Bishops,^[76] and, according to the Catholic Herald, created “a favourable impression as a man open to communion and dialogue”.^[77]^[78]Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio in 2008

Cardinal Bergoglio became known for personal humility, doctrinal conservatism, and a commitment to social justice.^[79] A simple lifestyle contributed to his reputation for humility. He lived in a small apartment, rather than in the elegant bishop’s residence in the suburb of Olivos. He took public transportation and cooked his own meals.^[80] He limited his time in Rome to “lightning visits”.^[81] He was known to be devoted to St. Thérèse of Lisieux, and he enclosed a small picture of her in the letters he wrote, calling her “a great missionary saint”.^[82]

After Pope John Paul II died on 2 April 2005, Bergoglio attended his funeral and was considered one of the papabile for succession to the papacy.^[83] He participated as a cardinal elector in the 2005 papal conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI. In the National Catholic Reporter, John L. Allen Jr. reported that Bergoglio was a frontrunner in the 2005 conclave.^[79]^[84] In September 2005, the Italian magazine Limes published claims that Bergoglio had been the runner-up and main challenger to Cardinal Ratzinger at that conclave and that he had received 40 votes in the third ballot, but fell back to 26 at the fourth and decisive ballot.^[85]^[86] The claims were based on a diary purportedly belonging to an anonymous cardinal who had been present at the conclave.^[85]^[87] According to the Italian journalist Andrea Tornielli, this number of votes had no precedent for a Latin American papabile.^[87] La Stampa reported that Bergoglio was in close contention with Ratzinger during the election, until he made an emotional plea that the cardinals should not vote for him.^[88] According to Tornielli, Bergoglio made this request to prevent the conclave from delaying too much in the election of a pope.^[89]

As a cardinal, Bergoglio was associated with Communion and Liberation, a Catholic evangelical lay movement of the type known as associations of the faithful.^[79]^[90] He sometimes made appearances at the annual gathering known as the Rimini Meeting held during the late summer months in Italy.^[79] In 2005, Cardinal Bergoglio authorized the request for beatification—the third step towards sainthood—for six members of the Pallottine community murdered in the San Patricio Church massacre.^[91]^[92] At the same time, Bergoglio ordered an investigation into the murders themselves, which had been widely blamed on the National Reorganization Process, the military junta that ruled Argentina at the time.^[92]

Relations with Argentine governments[edit source]

Dirty War[edit source]

Fernando de la Rúa[edit source]

Fernando de la Rúa replaced Carlos Menem as president of Argentina in 1999. As an archbishop, Bergoglio celebrated the annual Mass at the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral on the First National Government holiday, 25 May. In 2000, Bergoglio criticized the perceived apathy of society.^[115] Argentina faced an economic depression at the time, and the Church criticized the fiscal austerity of the government, which increased poverty. De la Rúa asked the Church to promote a dialogue between the leaders of economic and political sectors to find a solution for the crisis. He claims that he talked with Bergoglio and proposed to take part in the meeting, but Bergoglio would have told him that the meeting was canceled because of a misunderstanding by De la Rúa’s assistant, who may have declined the president’s assistance. Bishop Jorge Casaretto considers it unlikely, as De la Rúa only made the request in newspaper interviews, but never made a formal request to the Church.^[116]

The Justicialist Party won the 2001 elections and got the majority in the Congress, and appointed Ramón Puerta as president of the Senate. As vice president Carlos Álvarez resigned shortly before, this left an opposing party second in the order of precedence. Bergoglio asked for an interview with Puerta, and had a positive impression of him. Puerta told him that the Justicialist party was not plotting to oust De la Rúa, and promised to help the president promote the laws that may be required.^[117]

During police repression of the riots of December 2001, he contacted the Ministry of the Interior and asked that the police distinguish rioters and vandals from peaceful protesters.^[118]

Néstor and Cristina Kirchner[edit source]

Francis with Argentine president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner while holding traditional Argentine mate drinkware

When Bergoglio celebrated Mass at the cathedral for the 2004 First National Government holiday, President Néstor Kirchner attended and heard Bergoglio request more political dialogue, reject intolerance, and criticize exhibitionism and strident announcements.^[119] Kirchner celebrated the national day elsewhere the following year and the Mass in the cathedral was suspended.^[120] In 2006, Bergoglio helped the fellow Jesuit Joaquín Piña to win the elections in the Misiones Province and prevent an amendment of the local constitution that would allow indefinite re-elections. Kirchner intended to use that project to start similar amendments at other provinces, and eventually to the national constitution.^[121] Kirchner considered Bergoglio as a political rival to the day he died in October 2010.^[122] Bergoglio’s relations with Kirchner’s widow and successor, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, have been similarly tense. In 2008, Bergoglio called for national reconciliation during disturbances in the country’s agricultural regions, which the government interpreted as a support for anti-government demonstrators.^[122] The campaign to enact same-sex marriage legislation was a particularly tense period in their relations.^[122]

When Bergoglio was elected pope, the initial reactions were mixed. Most of the Argentine society cheered it, but the pro-government newspaper Página/12 published renewed allegations about the Dirty War, and the president of the National Library described a global conspiracy theory. The president took more than an hour before congratulating the new pope, and only did so in a passing reference within a routine speech. However, due to the pope’s popularity in Argentina, Cristina Kirchner made what the political analyst Claudio Fantini called a “Copernican shift” in her relations with him and fully embraced the Francis phenomenon.^[123] On the day before his inauguration as pope, Bergoglio, now Francis, had a private meeting with Kirchner. They exchanged gifts and lunched together. This was the new pope’s first meeting with a head of state, and there was speculation that the two were mending their relations.^[124]^[125] Página/12 removed their controversial articles about Bergoglio, written by Horacio Verbitsky, from their web page, as a result of this change.^[126]

Papacy (2013–present)[edit source]

As cardinal

As popeThe gold star represents the Virgin Mary, the grape-like plant—the spikenard—is associated with Saint Joseph and the IHS is the symbol of the Jesuits^[127]^[128]^[129]

Elected at 76 years old, Francis was reported to be healthy and his doctors have said his missing lung tissue, removed in his youth, does not significantly affect his health.^[130] The only concern would be decreased respiratory reserve if he had a respiratory infection.^[131] In the past, one attack of sciatica in 2007 prevented him from attending a consistory and delayed his return to Argentina for several days.^[81] Francis is the first Jesuit pope. This was a significant appointment, because of the sometimes tense relations between the Society of Jesus and the Holy See.^[132] However, Bergoglio came in second to Cardinal Ratzinger on all the ballots in the 2005 conclave, and at the time appeared as the only other viable candidate.^[133] He is also the first from the Americas,^[134] and the first from the Southern Hemisphere. Many media reported him as being the first non-European pope, but he is actually the 11th; the previous was Gregory III from Syria, who died in 741. Moreover, although Francis was not born in Europe, he is ethnically European; his father and both of his mother’s parents are from northern Italy.^[135]

As pope, his manner is less formal than that of his immediate predecessors: a style that news coverage has referred to as “no frills”, noting that it is “his common touch and accessibility that is proving the greatest inspiration.”^[136] On the night of his election, he took a bus back to his hotel with the cardinals, rather than be driven in the papal car.^[137] The next day, he visited Cardinal Jorge María Mejía in the hospital and chatted with patients and staff.^[138] At his first media audience, the Saturday after his election, the pope explained his papal name choice, citing Saint Francis of Assisi as “the man who gives us this spirit of peace, the poor man”, and he added “[h]ow I would like a poor Church, and for the poor”.^[139]

In addition to his native Spanish, he speaks fluent Italian (the official language of Vatican City and the “everyday language” of the Holy See) and German. He is also conversant in Latin (the official language of the Holy See),^[140] French,^[141] Portuguese,^[142] and English,^[143]^[144] and he understands the Piedmontese language and some Genoese.^[145]

Francis chose not to live in the official papal residence in the Apostolic Palace, but to remain in the Vatican guest house, in a suite in which he can receive visitors and hold meetings. He is the first pope since Pope Pius X to live outside the papal apartments.^[146] Francis still appears at the window of the Apostolic Palace for the Sunday Angelus.^[147]

Election[edit source]

Main articles: 2013 papal conclave and Papal inauguration of Pope Francis Francis appears in public for the first time as pope, at St. Peter’s Basilica balcony, 13 March 2013

Bergoglio was elected pope on 13 March 2013,^[7]^[148]^[149] the second day of the 2013 papal conclave, taking the papal name Francis.^[7]^[150] Francis was elected on the fifth ballot of the conclave.^[151] The Habemus papam announcement was delivered by the cardinal protodeacon, Jean-Louis Tauran.^[152] Cardinal Christoph Schönborn later said that Bergoglio was elected following two supernatural signs, one in the conclave and hence confidential, and a Latin-American couple of friends of Schönborn who whispered Bergoglio’s name in Schönborn’s ear; Schönborn commented “if these people say Bergoglio, that’s an indication of the Holy Spirit”.^[153]

Instead of accepting his cardinals’ congratulations while seated on the papal throne, Francis received them standing, reportedly an immediate sign of a changing approach to formalities at the Vatican.^[154] During his first appearance as pontiff on the balcony of Saint Peter’s Basilica, he wore a white cassock, not the red, ermine-trimmed mozzetta^[154]^[155] used by previous popes.^[156] He also wore the same iron pectoral cross that he had worn as archbishop of Buenos Aires, rather than the gold one worn by his predecessors.^[155]

After being elected and choosing his name, his first act was bestowing the Urbi et Orbi blessing on thousands of pilgrims gathered in St. Peter’s Square. Before blessing the crowd, he asked those in St. Peter’s Square to pray for his predecessor, “the bishop emeritus of Rome” Pope Benedict XVI, and for himself as the new “bishop of Rome”.^[157]

Francis held his papal inauguration on 19 March 2013 in St. Peter’s Square in the Vatican.^[7] He celebrated Mass in the presence of various political and religious leaders from around the world.^[158] In his homily Francis focused on the Solemnity of Saint Joseph, the liturgical day on which the Mass was celebrated.^[159]

Name[edit source]

In St. Peter’s Square, two months after his election

At his first audience on 16 March 2013, Francis told journalists that he had chosen the name in honor of Saint Francis of Assisi, and had done so because he was especially concerned for the well-being of the poor.^[160]^[161]^[162] He explained that, as it was becoming clear during the conclave voting that he would be elected the new bishop of Rome, the Brazilian Cardinal Cláudio Hummes had embraced him and whispered, “Don’t forget the poor”, which had made Bergoglio think of the saint.^[163]^[164] Bergoglio had previously expressed his admiration for St. Francis, explaining that “He brought to Christianity an idea of poverty against the luxury, pride, vanity of the civil and ecclesiastical powers of the time. He changed history.”^[165]

This is the first time that a pope has been named Francis. On the day of his election, the Vatican clarified that his official papal name was “Francis”, not “Francis I”, i.e. no regnal number is used for him. A Vatican spokesman said that the name would become Francis I if and when there is a Francis II.^[161]^[166] It is the first time since Lando‘s 913–914 pontificate that a serving pope holds a name not used by a predecessor.^[d]

Francis also said that some cardinal electors had jokingly suggested to him that he should choose either “Adrian”, since Adrian VI had been a reformer of the church, or “Clement” to settle the score with Clement XIV, who had suppressed the Jesuit order.^[139]^[168] In February 2014, it was reported that Bergoglio, had he been elected in 2005, would have chosen the pontifical name of “John XXIV” in honor of John XXIII. It was said that he told Cardinal Francesco Marchisano: “John, I would have called myself John, like the Good Pope; I would have been completely inspired by him”.^[169]

Curia[edit source]

Inauguration of Francis, 19 March 2013

On 16 March 2013, Francis asked all those in senior positions of the Roman Curia to provisionally continue in office.^[170] He named Alfred Xuereb as his personal secretary.^[171] On 6 April he named José Rodríguez Carballo as secretary for the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life, a position that had been vacant for several months.^[172] Francis abolished the bonuses paid to Vatican employees upon the election of a new pope, amounting to several million Euros, opting instead to donate the money to charity.^[173] He also abolished the €25,000 annual bonus paid to the cardinals serving on the Board of Supervisors for the Vatican bank.^[174]

On 13 April 2013, he named eight cardinals to a new Council of Cardinal Advisers to advise him on revising the organizational structure of the Roman Curia. The group included several known as critics of Vatican operations and only one member of the Curia.^[175] They are Giuseppe Bertello, president of the Vatican City State governorate; Francisco Javier Errazuriz Ossa from Chile; Oswald Gracias from India; Reinhard Marx from Germany; Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya from the Democratic Republic of the Congo; George Pell from Australia; Seán O’Malley from the United States; and Óscar Andrés Rodríguez Maradiaga from Honduras. He appointed Bishop Marcello Semeraro secretary for the group and scheduled its first meeting for 1–3 October.^[176]

Early issues[edit source]

In March 2013, 21 British Catholic peers and members of Parliament from all parties asked Francis to allow married men in Great Britain to be ordained as priests, keeping celibacy as the rule for bishops. They asked it on the grounds that it would be anomalous that married Anglican priests can be received into the Catholic Church and ordained as priests, by means of either the Pastoral Provision of 20 June 1980 or the 2009 Anglican ordinariate, but married Catholic men cannot do the same.^[177]

Fouad Twal, the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, included a call in his 2013 Easter homily for the pope to visit Jerusalem.^[178] Louis Raphael I, the Chaldean Catholic Patriarch, asked the pope to visit the “embattled Christian community” in Iraq.^[179] In March 2021, Pope Francis went to Iraq on a first-ever papal visit to the diminishing Christian communities of Mesopotamia fallen apart after years of conflict.^[180]

On the first Holy Thursday following his election, Francis washed and kissed the feet of ten male and two female juvenile offenders, not all Catholic, aged from 14 to 21, imprisoned at Rome’s Casal del Marmo detention facility, telling them the ritual of foot washing is a sign that he is at their service.^[181] This was the first time that a pope had included women in this ritual; although he had already done so when he was archbishop.^[181] One of the male and one of the female prisoners were Muslim.^[181]

On 31 March 2013, Francis used his first Easter homily to make a plea for peace throughout the world, specifically mentioning the Middle East, Africa, and North and South Korea.^[182] He also spoke out against those who give in to “easy gain” in a world filled with greed, and made a plea for humanity to become a better guardian of creation by protecting the environment.^[182] He said that “[w]e ask the risen Jesus, who turns death into life, to change hatred into love, vengeance into forgiveness, war into peace.”^[183] Although the Vatican had prepared greetings in 65 languages, Francis chose not to read them.^[144] According to the Vatican, the pope “at least for now, feels at ease using Italian, the everyday language of the Holy See”.^[184]Thousands welcomed Francis in Guayaquil, Ecuador, 6 July 2015

In 2013, Francis initially reaffirmed the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith‘s program to reform the U.S. Leadership Conference of Women Religious,^[185] initiated under his predecessor, Pope Benedict XVI. The New York Times reported that the Vatican had formed the opinion in 2012 that the sisters‘ group was tinged with feminist influences, focused too much on ending social and economic injustice and not enough on stopping abortion, and permitted speakers at its meetings who questioned church doctrine.^[186]^[187] However, in April 2015 the investigation was brought to a close. While the timing of the closure may have anticipated a visit by Francis to the U.S. in September 2015, it was noted that the sisters’ emphasis is close to that of Francis.^[188]

On 12 May, Francis carried out his first canonizations of candidates approved for sainthood during the reign of Benedict XVI: the first Colombian saint, Laura of Saint Catherine of Siena, the second female Mexican saint, María Guadalupe García Zavala, both of the 20th century, and the 813 15th-century Martyrs of Otranto. He said: “While we venerate the martyrs of Otranto, ask God to support the many Christians who still suffer from violence and give them the courage and fate and respond to evil with goodness.”^[189]

Synodal church[edit source]

Francis has overseen synods on the family (2014), on youth (2018), and on the Church in the Amazon region (2019). In 2019 Francis’ apostolic constitution Episcopalis communio allowed that the final document of a synod may become magisterial teaching simply with papal approval. The constitution also allowed for laity to contribute input directly to the synod’s secretary general.^[190] Some analysts see the creation of a truly synodal church as likely to become the greatest contribution of Francis’ papacy.^[191]

Consultation with Catholic laity[edit source]

Quito, Ecuador in 2015

A February 2014 survey by the World Values Survey cited in The Washington Post and Time shows how the unity Francis had created could be challenged. Although views about Francis personally were favorable, many Catholics disagreed with at least some of his teachings. The survey found that members of the Catholic Church are deeply divided over abortion, artificial contraception, divorce, the ordination of women, and married priests.^[192]^[193] In the same month Francis asked parishes to provide answers to an official questionnaire^[194] described as a “much broader consultation than just a survey”^[195] regarding opinions among the laity. He continued to assert Catholic doctrine, in less dramatic tone than his recent predecessors, who maintained that the Catholic Church is not a democracy of popular opinion.^[196]

Linda Woodhead of Lancaster University wrote of the survey Francis initiated, “it’s not a survey in any sense that a social scientist would recognize.” Woodhead said that many ordinary Catholics would have difficulty understanding theological jargon there. Nonetheless, she suspected the survey might be influential.^[197]

The Catholic Church in England and Wales as of April 2014 had refused to publish results of this survey; a Church spokesman said a senior Vatican official had expressly asked for summaries to remain confidential, and that orders had come from the pope that the information should not be made public until after October. This disappointed many reformers who hoped the laity would be more involved in decision-making. Some other Catholic churches, for example in Germany and Austria, published summaries of the responses to the survey, which showed a wide gap between Church teaching and the behavior of ordinary Catholics.^[195]

In a column he wrote for the Vatican’s semi-official newspaper L’Osservatore Romano, the then-Prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, American cardinal Raymond Leo Burke, who has a long-standing reputation as one of the church’s most vocal conservative hard-liners, said that Francis opposed both abortion and gay marriage.^[198] The Vatican’s chief spokesman, Father Federico Lombardi, also noted in the Vatican press office during the 2014 consistory meetings that Francis and Cardinal Walter Kasper would not change or redefine any dogmas pertaining to Church theology on doctrinal matters.^[199]

Institute for the Works of Religion[edit source]

In the first months of Francis’s papacy, the Institute for the Works of Religion, informally known as the Vatican Bank, said that it would become more transparent in its financial dealings^[200] There had long been allegations of corruption and money laundering connected with the bank.^[201]^[202] Francis appointed a commission to advise him about reform of the Bank,^[201]^[202] and the finance consulting firm Promontory Financial Group was assigned to carry out a comprehensive investigation of all customer contacts of the bank on these facts.^[203] Because of this affair the Promoter of Justice at the Vatican Tribunal applied a letter rogatory for the first time in the history of the Republic of Italy at the beginning of August 2013.^[204] In January 2014, Francis replaced four of the five cardinal overseers of the Vatican Bank, who had been confirmed in their positions in the final days of Benedict XVI’s papacy.^[205] Lay experts and clerics were looking into how the bank was run. Ernst von Freyberg was put in charge. Moneyval feels more reform is needed, and Francis may be willing to close the bank if the reforms prove too difficult.^[206] There is uncertainty how far reforms can succeed.^[207]

Papal documents[edit source]

On 29 June 2013, Francis published the encyclical Lumen fidei, which was largely the work of Benedict XVI but awaiting a final draft at his retirement.^[208] On 24 November 2013, Francis published his first major letter as pope, the apostolic exhortation Evangelii gaudium,^[209] which he described as the programmatic of his papacy.^[210] On 18 June 2015, he published his first own, original encyclical Laudato si’ concerning care for the planet.^[211] On 8 April 2016, Francis published his second apostolic exhortation, Amoris laetitia,^[212] remarking on love within the family. Controversy arose at the end of 2016 when four cardinals formally asked Francis for clarifications, particularly on the issue of giving communion to divorced and civilly remarried Catholics.^[213]

His motu proprios include Ai nostri tempi and De concordia inter codices. Francis issued another titled Maiorem hac dilectionem which created a new path towards canonization for certain causes.

He established two new Secretariats (top-level departments) in the Roman Curia: the Secretariat for the Economy, and the Secretariat for Communications. He simplified the process for declaring matrimonial nullity.^[214]

On 8 December 2017, Francis signed a new apostolic constitution on ecclesiastical universities and faculties Veritatis gaudium, published 29 January 2018.^[215]

A further Apostolic Exhortation, Gaudete et exsultate (Rejoice and be glad), was published on 19 March 2018, dealing with “the call to holiness in today’s world” for all persons. He counters contemporary versions of the gnostic and Pelagian heresies and describes how Jesus’ beatitudes call people to “go against the flow”.^[216]

In February 2019, Francis acknowledged that priests and bishops were sexually abusing religious sisters.^[217] He addressed this and the clergy sex abuse scandal by convening a summit on clergy sexual abuse in Rome 21–24 February 2019.^[218] As a follow-up to that summit, on 9 May 2019 Francis promulgated the motu proprio Vos estis lux mundi which specified responsibilities, including reporting directly to the Holy See on bishops and on one’s superior, while simultaneously involving another bishop in the archdiocese of the accused bishop.^[219]

On 30 September 2020, he published the apostolic letter Scripturae sacrae affectus to celebrate the 16th centenary of the death of Jerome.^[220]^[221]

On 4 October 2020 on the feast of St. Francis of Assisi, Francis published the encyclical Fratelli tutti on fraternity and social friendship, using St. Francis’ own words to describe our universal brotherhood and sisterhood.^[222]

On 8 December 2020 on the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, Pope Francis published the apostolic letter Patris corde (“With a Father’s Heart”).^[223] To mark the occasion, the Pope proclaimed a “Year of Saint Joseph” from 8 December 2020, to 8 December 2021 on the 150th Anniversary of the Proclamation of Saint Joseph as Patron of the Universal Church.^[224]

On 1 June 2021, Francis published the apostolic constitution Pascite gregem Dei.^[225]

Pope Francis issued the motu proprio Traditionis custodes on 16 July 2021. The document abrogated the permissions for the celebration of the Tridentine Mass previously established by Benedict XVI in the 2007 Summorum Pontificum, with Traditionis custodes instituting increased restrictions on the use of the 1962 Roman Missal. Pope Francis stated in a letter accompanying the motu proprio that emphasizing the Mass of Paul VI would bring “unity I intend to re-establish throughout the Church of the Roman Rite.”^[226]

Ecumenism and interreligious dialogue[edit source]

Main article: Pope Francis: ecumenism and interreligious dialogue The stamp is dedicated to the pastoral visit of Francis to Azerbaijan on 2 October 2016

Pope Francis continued in the tradition of the Second Vatican Council and of the papacies since the Council in promoting ecumenism with other Christian denominations, as well as encouraging dialogue with leaders of other religions; he has also supported peace with those claiming no religious belief.

Clerical titles[edit source]

In January 2014, Francis said that he would appoint fewer monsignors and only assign those honored to the lowest of the three surviving ranks of monsignor, chaplain of His Holiness. It would be awarded only to diocesan priests at least 65 years old. During his 15 years as archbishop of Buenos Aires, Francis never sought the title for any of his priests. It is believed he associates it with clerical careerism and hierarchy, though he did not apply this restriction to clergy working in the Roman Curia or diplomatic corps, where careerism is an even greater concern.^[227]

Canonizations and beatifications[edit source]

Main articles: List of saints canonized by Pope Francis, List of people beatified by Pope Francis, and List of people declared venerable by Pope Francis

Francis presided over the first canonizations of his pontificate on 12 May 2013 in which he canonized the Martyrs of Otranto. Antonio Primaldo and his 812 companions who had been executed by the Ottomans in 1480,^[228] as well as the religious sisters Laura of St. Catherine of Siena and María Guadalupe García Zavala – in this first canonization he surpassed the record of Pope John Paul II in canonizing the most saints in a pontificate.^[189] Francis approved the equipollent canonization of Angela of Foligno the following 9 October and then the Jesuit Peter Faber the following 17 December.^[229]^[230]

The pope approved further equipollent canonizations on 3 April 2014 for the Jesuit José de Anchieta as well as the Ursuline nun Marie of the Incarnation and bishop François de Laval.^[231] Francis canonized his two predecessors John XXIII and John Paul II on 27 April 2014 and canonized six additional saints the following 23 November.^[232]^[233] The pope canonized Joseph Vaz on his visit to Sri Lanka on 14 January 2015 and canonized a further four saints on the following 17 May; he canonized Junípero Serra on 23 September while visiting the United States and then canonized four saints on 18 October including the first married couple to be named as saints.^[234]^[235]^[236]^[237] Francis canonized Maria Elisabeth Hesselblad and Stanislaus Papczyński on 5 June 2016 and then canonized Teresa of Calcutta on 4 September; he canonized seven additional saints on 16 October.^[238]^[239]^[240] The pope canonized the two child visionaries Francisco and Jacinta Marto during his visit to Fátima in mid-2017 and canonized 35 additional saints on 15 October.^[241]^[242] Francis recognized seven saints on 14 October 2018, chief among them, his predecessor Pope Paul VI and Óscar Romero.^[243] Francis later confirmed the equipollent canonization for Bartholomew of Braga in mid-2019.^[244] On 13 October 2019, Francis canonized five new saints, including Cardinal John Henry Newman.^[245] The pope confirmed the equipollent canonization for Margherita della Metola on 24 April 2021.^[246]

The pope has also continued the practice of having beatifications celebrated in the place of the individual’s origin though has presided over beatifications himself on three occasions: for Paul Yun Ji-Chung and 123 companions on 16 August 2014, his predecessor Pope Paul VI on 19 October 2014, and two Colombian martyrs on 8 September 2017.^[247]^[248]^[249] The pope has approved beatifications for a range of men and women including the likes of Álvaro del Portillo of Opus Dei (27 September 2014), the martyred archbishop Óscar Romero (23 May 2015), the prominent Polish cardinal Stefan Wyszyński (12 September 2021), and several large groups of Spanish martyrs.^[250]

Francis also confirmed his predecessor John Paul I to be Venerable on 8 November 2017.^[251]

Doctors of the Church[edit source]

On 21 February 2015, Francis signed a decree naming Saint Gregory of Narek as the 36th Doctor of the Church; he formally conferred the title upon the saint at a ceremony held in Saint Peter’s Basilica on 12 April 2015 with delegations from the Armenian Catholic Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church present.^[252] On 20 January 2022, Francis provided his approval to the suggestion to name Saint Irenaeus of Lyon as the 37th Doctor of the Church, formally conferring the title upon him, along with the supplementary title Doctor unitatis (“Doctor of Unity”) in a decree issued on 21 January.^[253]

Consistories[edit source]

Main article: Cardinals created by Francis

At the first consistory of his papacy, held on 22 February 2014, Francis created 19 new cardinals. At the time of their elevation to that rank, 16 of these new cardinals were under eighty years of age and thus eligible to vote in a papal conclave.^[254] The new appointees included prelates from South America, Africa, and Asia, including appointees in some of the world’s poorest countries, such as Chibly Langlois from Haiti and Philippe Nakellentuba Ouedraogo from Burkina Faso.^[255] The consistory was a rare occasion in which Francis and his predecessor, Benedict XVI, appeared together in public.^[255]

Benedict XVI also attended the second consistory on 14 February 2015, at which Francis elevated 20 new cardinals, with 15 under the age of eighty and five over the age of eighty. The pope continued his practice of appointing cardinals from the peripheries, such as Charles Maung Bo of Myanmar and Soane Patita Paini Mafi of Tonga.^[256]

Francis presided over the third consistory of his papacy on 19 November 2016, elevating 17 new cardinals. Of that total number at the time of their elevation, 13 were under the age of eighty and four were over the age of eighty. Francis continued his previous practice of elevating cardinals from the peripheries with an emphasis again on Asia and Africa, such as Patrick D’Rozario from Bangladesh and Dieudonné Nzapalainga from the Central African Republic, while also naming the first three American cardinals of his papacy and only one Curial appointment.^[257]

The pope presided over a fourth consistory for the elevation of five new cardinals on the afternoon of 28 June 2017. Each of the five were under the age of eighty, and were thus eligible to vote in a papal conclave. This consistory was noteworthy for the fact that, with the pope continuing the trend of elevating cardinals from a diverse range of areas, no cardinals elevated are of the Roman Curia, and one was a mere auxiliary bishop.^[258]

Francis presided over his fifth consistory for the elevation of 14 new cardinals on 28 June 2018. The first eleven were under the age of eighty, and therefore, were eligible to vote in a future papal conclave while the last three were over the age of eighty, and thus, ineligible to vote in a papal conclave.^[259] The pope continued the practice of naming the Vicar of Rome and a curial prefect as cardinals, while naming his substitute for the Secretariat of State in anticipation of his transferral to a curial department. The pope also continued his practice of bestowing the red hat on those from peripheries such as Madagascar, Pakistan, and Iraq, and like in 2016, created a priest as a cardinal. The consistory was also noteworthy for the fact that Francis named the papal almoner Konrad Krajewski as a cardinal, marking the consistory the first occasion where the almoner was made a cardinal. Francis himself later said that he wanted the office of almoner to receive the red hat going forward as it was an important arm of the Vatican.^[260]

On 1 September 2019, following his weekly Sunday Angelus address, Francis unexpectedly announced the appointment of 13 new cardinals. Of these, 10 appointees were under the age of 80 and would therefore become cardinal electors, besides three over 80. The new cardinals were formally installed at the consistory celebrated on 5 October 2019.^[261] Most of the new cardinals come from the peripheries of the church and developing countries. Two new appointees were from Muslim majority countries (Morocco and Indonesia), while two others were known for their work on refugee and migration issues.^[262] This action took the number of cardinal electors appointed by Francis to the College of Cardinals to about 70 out of nearly 130.^[261]

Francis created thirteen new cardinals on 28 November 2020; nine appointees were under the age of 80, therefore, could vote in a future papal conclave.^[263] The pope also nominated four cardinals over the age of 80. Most of these new appointees continued the trend that Francis adhered to, appointing the first cardinals to represent Brunei and Rwanda. Francis also nominated the first African American cardinal (Gregory), while naming the first Conventual Franciscan (Gambetti) in almost 160 years, and the first from Siena (Lojudice) since 1801.^[264] Three of his appointees were only priests upon their nomination, therefore, two (Gambetti and Feroci) received their episcopal consecration, while one (Cantalamessa) was granted a papal dispensation from it.

Year of Mercy[edit source]

Francis opens the Holy Door marking the beginning of the Extraordinary Jubilee of MercyMain article: Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy

With his April 2015 papal bull of indiction, Misericordiae Vultus (Latin: “The Face of Mercy“), Francis inaugurated a Special Jubilee Year of Mercy, to run from 8 December 2015, Solemnity of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, to the last Sunday before Advent and the Solemnity of the Feast of Christ the King of the Universe on 20 November 2016.

The Holy Doors of the major basilicas of Rome (including the Great Door of St. Peter’s) were opened, and special “Doors of Mercy” were opened at cathedrals and other major churches around the world, where the faithful can earn indulgences by fulfilling the usual conditions of prayer for the pope’s intentions, confession, and detachment from sin, and communion.^[265]^[266] During Lent of that year, special 24-hour penance services will be celebrated, and during the year, special qualified and experienced priests called “Missionaries of Mercy” will be available in every diocese to forgive even severe, special-case sins normally reserved to the Holy See’s Apostolic Penitentiary.^[267]^[268]

Francis established the World Day of the Poor in his Apostolic Letter, Misericordia et Misera, issued on 20 November 2016 to celebrate the end of the Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy.^[269]^[270]

COVID-19 pandemic[edit source]

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Francis canceled his regular general audiences at St. Peter’s Square to prevent crowds from gathering and spreading the virus, which seriously affected Italy.^[271] He encouraged priests to visit patients and health workers;^[272] urged the faithful not to forget the poor during the time of crisis;^[273] offered prayers for victims of the virus in China;^[274] and invoked the Blessed Virgin Mary under her title Salus Populi Romani, as the Diocese of Rome observed a period of prayer and fasting in recognition of the victims.^[275] The pontiff reacted with displeasure on 13 March 2020, at the news that the Vicar General had closed all churches in the Diocese of Rome. Despite Italy being under a quarantine lockdown, Francis pleaded “not to leave the … people alone” and worked to partially reverse the closures.

On 20 March 2020, Francis asked the Dicastery for Promoting Integral Human Development (DPIHD) to create a Vatican COVID-19 Commission to express the Church’s concern for the crisis generated by the COVID-19 pandemic, and propose responses to the potential socio-economic challenges deriving from it.^[276]^[277]

On 27 March, Francis gave an extraordinary benediction Urbi et Orbi.^[278] In his homily on calming the storm in the Gospel of Mark, Francis described the setting: “Dense darkness has thickened on our squares, streets and cities; it looks over our lives filling everything with a deafening silence and a desolate void that paralyzes everything in its passage: you can feel it in the air, you can feel it in your gestures. …In the face of suffering, where the true development of our peoples is measured, we discover and experience the priestly prayer of Jesus: ‘may all be one’.”^[279]

Francis maintains getting COVID vaccination is a moral obligation. Francis stated that people had a responsibility to look after themselves, “and this translates into respect for the health of those around us. Health care is a moral obligation”, he stated.^[280]

Role of women[edit source]

Financial corruption[edit source]

Francis was mandated by electing cardinals to sort out Vatican finances following scandals during the papacies of Pope Benedict and Pope John Paul II. He stated he is determined to end corruption in the Catholic Church but is not very optimistic due to a human problem dating back centuries.^[285]

Theological emphases[edit source]

Main article: Theology of Pope Francis

In Evangelii gaudium Francis revealed what would be the emphases of his pontificate: a missionary impulse among all Catholics, sharing the faith more actively, avoiding worldliness and more visibly living the gospel of God’s mercy, and helping the poor and working for social justice.^[286]

Evangelization[edit source]

From his first major letter Evangelii gaudium (Joy to the World), Francis called for “a missionary and pastoral conversion” whereby the laity would fully share in the missionary task of the church.^[210]^[287] Then in his letter on the call of all to the same holiness, Gaudete et exsultate, Fancis describes holiness as “an impulse to evangelize and to leave a mark in this world”.^[288]

Church governance[edit source]

See also: Theology of Pope Francis § Church governance A Carnival float of Francis and Germany’s prelate Franz-Peter Tebartz-van Elst, Düsseldorf, 2014

Francis called for decentralization of governance away from Rome, and for a synodal manner of decision making in dialogue with the people.^[289] He strongly opposed clericalism^[290] and made women full members of the Church’s dicasteries in Rome.^[291]

Environment[edit source]

Francis’ naming of himself after Francis of Assisi was an early indication of how he shared Francis’ care for all of creation. This was followed in May 2015 with his major encyclical on the environment, Laudato si’ (Praise be to you).^[292]

Option for the poor[edit source]

Francis visits a favela in Brazil during World Youth Day 2013See also: Theology of Pope Francis § Option for the poor, Theology of Pope Francis § Capitalism, and Theology of Pope Francis § Liberation Theology

Francis has highly extolled “popular movements”, which demonstrate the “strength of us”, serve as a remedy to the “culture of the self”, and are based on solidarity with the poor and the common good.^[293]

Morality[edit source]

Cardinal Walter Kasper has called mercy “the key word of his pontificate.”^[294]^: 31–32 His papal motto Miserando atque eligendo (“by having mercy and by choosing”) contains a central theme of his papacy, God’s mercy,^[295]^[296] While maintaining the Church’s traditional teaching against abortion, Francis, has referred to the “obsession” of some Catholics with a few issues like “abortion, gay marriage and the use of contraceptive methods” which “do not show the heart of the message of Jesus Christ.”^[297]

LGBT[edit source]

Main article: Pope Francis and homosexuality

In June 2013, Francis suggested that “if a person is gay and seeks God and has good will, who am I to judge?”^[298] Later, in 2015, he declared that “the family is threatened by growing efforts on the part of some to redefine the very institution of marriage.”^[299] He has also suggested that same-sex marriage “disfigures God’s plan for creation.”^[299]

He stated that he supports legally recognising same-sex civil unions in a statement from an interview published in October 2020;^[300]^[301]^[302] this passage was from an interview from 2019, but this passage had been cut from public releases at the time.^[303]^[304] The statement was also interpreted as supportive of LGBT adoption.^[302]^[305]^[306]

What we have to create is a civil union law. That way they are legally covered. They’re children of God and have a right to a family. Nobody should be thrown out or be made miserable because of it.

However, Vatican later clarified that his comments were taken out of context with two comments to two different questions at different times spliced together in a very misleading way.^[307] Francis has never officially pronounced support for gay civil unions.^[307] Francis also endorsed the 2015 Slovak same-sex marriage referendum which would have banned same-sex adoptions in the country.^[308]^[309]^[310]

In January 2022, Francis said during a weekly audience that parents of gay children should offer support to their children instead of condemning them.^[311]

Religious persecution[edit source]

Further information: Persecution of Christians by ISIL

Francis supported the use of force to stop Islamic militants from attacking religious minorities in Iraq.^[312] In January 2018, Francis met with a group of Yazidi refugees in Europe and expressed his support for their right to freely profess their own faith without limitations. In the meeting, he also urged the international community “not to remain a silent and unresponsive spectator in the face of [your] tragedy.”^[313]

Controversies[edit source]

Since 2016, criticism against Francis by theological conservatives has intensified.^[314]^[315]^[316]^[317]^[318] One commentator has described the conservative resistance against Francis as “unique in its visibility” in recent Church history.^[319] Some have explained the level of disagreement as due to his going beyond theoretical principles to pastoral discernment.^[320]

Sexual abuse response[edit source]

As cardinal, in 2010 Bergoglio commissioned a study which concluded that Father Julio Grassi, a priest convicted of child sexual abuse, was innocent, that his victims were lying, and that the case against him never should have gone to trial.^[321] Despite the study, the Supreme Court of Argentina upheld the conviction and 15-year prison sentence against Grassi in March 2017.^[321] Francis has admitted that the Church “arrived late” in dealing with sexual abuse cases.^[322] During his papacy, a number of abuse survivors have expressed disappointment in Francis’s response to sex abuse in the Church^[323] while others have praised him for his actions.^[324]

In 2015, Francis was criticized for supporting Chilean bishop Juan Barros, who was accused of covering up sex crimes committed against minors.^[325] In 2018, Francis acknowledged he had made “grave errors” in judgment about Barros, apologized to the victims and launched a Vatican investigation that resulted in the resignation of Barros and two other Chilean bishops.^[326] In 2018, Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò published an open letter denouncing Francis’s handling of sexual abuse allegations against Theodore McCarrick, accusing him of knowing about allegations that McCarrick had committed sexual abuse and failing to take action. Viganò called on the Pope to resign.^[327]

In November 2021, Francis thanked journalists for their “mission” on uncovering sex abuse scandals in the Church, adding that it made of the cases “less obscure (…) to make those who live it less fear it.”^[328]

Theological disagreements[edit source]

Amoris laetitia and the communion to the divorced and civilly remarried[edit source]

Main article: Amoris laetitia

On a theological level, controversy arose after the publication of the apostolic exhortation Amoris laetitia, especially regarding whether the exhortation had changed the Catholic Church‘s sacramental discipline concerning access to the sacraments of Penance and the Eucharist for divorced couples who have civilly remarried.^[329] Francis had written that “It is important that the divorced who have entered a new union should be made to feel part of the Church.” He called not for “a new set of general rules, canonical in nature and applicable to all cases,” but “a responsible personal and pastoral discernment of particular cases.” He went on to say: “It is true that general rules set forth a good which can never be disregarded or neglected, but in their formulation they cannot provide absolutely for all particular situations.”^[330]

Four cardinals (Raymond Leo Burke, Carlo Caffarra, Walter Brandmüller, and Joachim Meisner) formally asked Francis for clarifications, particularly on the issue of giving communion to divorced and civilly remarried Catholics.^[331] They submitted five “dubia” (doubts), and requested a yes or no answer. Francis has not publicly replied.^[332] The exhortation has been implemented in different ways by various bishops around the world.^[333]

Cardinal Gerhard Müller, former prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, maintained that Amoris Laetitia should only be interpreted in line with previous doctrine. Therefore, according to Cardinal Müller, divorced and civilly remarried can have access to the Sacraments of Reconciliation and the Eucharist only if they take on the duty of living in complete continence.^[334]^[335] Francis subsequently announced that dicastery prefects would be appointed for a single five-year term, and replaced Müller at the end of his term in 2017 with Luis Ladaria Ferrer.^[336] Cardinal Carlo Caffarra, one of the authors of the dubia, maintains that after Amoris laetitia “only a blind man could deny there’s great confusion, uncertainty and insecurity in the Church.”^[337]

In July 2017 a group of conservative clergy, academics and laymen signed a document labeled as a “Filial Correction” of Francis.^[338] The 25-page document, which was made public in September after it received no reply, criticized the pope for promoting what it described as seven heretical propositions through various words, actions and omissions during his pontificate.^[339] Capuchin Father Thomas Weinandy, ex-doctrine chief of US Bishops, wrote a letter to Francis on 31 July 2017, which he subsequently made public, in which he charged that Francis is fostering “chronic confusion”, “demeaning” the importance of doctrine, appointing bishops who “scandalize” believers with dubious “teaching and pastoral practice”, giving prelates who object the impression they will be “marginalized or worse” if they speak out, and causing faithful Catholics to “lose confidence in their supreme shepherd”.^[340]

Document on Human Fraternity[edit source]

Main article: Document on Human Fraternity

The Document on Human Fraternity for World Peace and Living Together is a joint statement signed by Francis and Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar, on 4 February 2019 in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. This joint statement is concerned with how different faiths can live peaceably in the same world and areas. Criticisms focused particularly on the passage about God’s will with regard to the diversity of religions, claiming that the “pluralism and the diversity of religions, colour, sex, race and language are willed by God in His wisdom, through which He created human beings”.^[341]^[342] Catholic theologian Chad Pecknold wrote that this sentence was “puzzling, and potentially problematic”.^[343] Some Catholic observers tried to understand it as an allusion to the “permissive will” of God, allowing evil on earth.^[342] Pecknold wrote that the diversity of religions might also be “evidence of our natural desire to know God”.^[343] On 8 February 2019 Bishop Athanasius Schneider released a document entitled “The Gift of Filial Adoption, the Christian Faith: the only valid and the only God-willed religion”.^[342]

Traditionis custodes and the restriction of the Tridentine Mass[edit source]

Main article: Traditionis custodes

In July 2021, Francis issued, motu proprio, the apostolic letter titled Traditionis custodes, which reversed the decision of his immediate predecessor Benedict XVI in Summorum Pontificum and imposed new restrictions on the use of the Traditional Latin Mass. The letter returned to the bishops the power to grant or suppress the Latin Mass in their particular dioceses, and requires newly ordained priests to first request permission before performing the old rite, among other changes.^[344]^[345] “Traditionis Custodes, which Pope Francis published and came into immediate effect on July 16, has been criticized by prelates such as Cardinals Raymond Burke, Gerhard Müller and Joseph Zen, as well as many lay faithful who attend the traditional Latin Mass, also called Extraordinary Form of the Roman Rite. The most general criticism is that the restrictions are unnecessary, needlessly harsh, and implemented in an unjustifiably swift fashion.”^[346]

International policy[edit source]

Francis with Cuban leader Raúl Castro in September 2015

Francis has regularly been accused by conservatives of having a “soft spot” for leftist populist movements.^[347] After Francis’s visit to Cuba in 2015, Catholic Yale historian Carlos Eire said Francis had a “preferential option for the oppressors” in Cuba.^[348] Nevertheless, Francis remained hostile to right-wing populism.^[349]

Francis has supported the Vatican-China agreement, intended to normalize the situation of China’s Catholics,^[350] which was criticized by Cardinal Joseph Zen as a step towards the “annihilation” of the Catholic Church in China.^[351]^[352] U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said cooperating with the Chinese Communist Party puts the pope’s moral authority at risk.^[353] In September 2020, Pompeo urged Francis to stand against China’s human rights violations.^[354] In November, Francis named China’s Uyghur minority among a list of the world’s persecuted peoples. He wrote: “I think often of persecuted peoples: the Rohingya [Muslims in Myanmar], the poor Uighurs, the Yazidi—what ISIS did to them was truly cruel—or Christians in Egypt and Pakistan killed by bombs that went off while they prayed in church.” Zhao Lijian, the spokesman of the Foreign Ministry of China, said Francis’ remarks had “no factual basis at all”.^[355]Francis with U.S. President Donald Trump and First Lady Melania in 2017

Since 2016, Francis has also been contrasted with US President Donald Trump,^[356] elected that year, with some conservative critics drawing comparisons between the two.^[357]^[358] During the 2016 United States presidential election, Francis said of Trump, “A person who only thinks about building walls, wherever they may be, and not building bridges, is not Christian. That is not the gospel.” Trump responded, “For a religious leader to question a person’s faith is disgraceful.”^[359] Federico Lombardi said that Francis’ comments were not “a personal attack, nor an indication of who to vote for”.^[360]

In response to criticism from Venezuela’s bishops, President Nicolás Maduro said in 2017 that he had the support of Francis.^[361]^[362] Francis met with the country’s bishops in June 2017, and the Venezuelan bishops’ conference president stated, “There is no distance between the episcopal conference and the Holy See.”^[363] In January 2019, 20 former presidents in Latin America wrote a letter to Francis criticizing his Christmas address regarding the ongoing Venezuelan crisis for being too simplistic and for not acknowledging what they believed to be the causes of the suffering of the victims of the crisis.^[364] Francis has sought peace in the crisis without picking a side.^[365]

In 2019, during the Hong Kong protests, Francis was criticized by Catholic clergy in Hong Kong, with Cardinal Joseph Zen criticizing him for not taking a stand against China and instead being quoted as saying “I would like to go to China. I love China”. Francis compared the protests in Hong Kong to those seen in Chile and in France.^[366]

Following the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan and withdrawal of U.S. forces from the country, Francis said that the withdrawal of troops was “legitimate” but said that the process of evacuations was “not thought through” and criticized the war for having failed at nation-building. He also stated that the Vatican is in talks with the Taliban through Cardinal Pietro Parolin to discourage the Taliban on taking reprisal measures against civilians.^[367]^[368]

International diplomatic role[edit source]

Map indicating countries visited by Francis as pope

Francis played a key role in the talks toward restoring full diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Cuba. The restoration was jointly announced by U.S. President Barack Obama and Cuban President Raúl Castro on 17 December 2014. The headline in the Los Angeles Times on 19 December was “Bridge to Cuba via Vatican,” with the further lead “In a rare and crucial role, Francis helped keep U.S. talks with Havana on track and guided final deal.”^[369] The pope, along with the Government of Canada, was a behind-the-scenes broker of the agreement, taking the role following President Obama’s request during his visit to the pope in March 2014.^[370] The success of the negotiations was credited to Francis because “as a religious leader with the confidence of both sides, he was able to convince the Obama and Castro administrations that the other side would live up to the deal”.^[369] En route to the United States for a visit in September 2015, the pope stopped in Cuba. “The plan comes amid a breakthrough for which Francis has received much credit.”^[371] The Cuba visit “seals that accomplishment, in which he served as a bridge between two erstwhile enemies”.^[371] According to one expert on religion in Latin America, Mario Paredes, the pope’s visit to Cuba was consistent with his aim to promote an understanding of the role of the Cuban Revolution and that of the Catholic Church. When Francis was archbishop of Buenos Aires, he authored a text entitled “Dialogues Between John Paul II and Fidel Castro”.^[371] John Paul was the first pope to visit Cuba. In May 2015, Francis met with Cuban leader Raúl Castro. After the meeting in Vatican City on 10 May 2015, Castro said that he was considering returning to the Catholic Church.^[372] He said in a televised news conference, “I read all the speeches of the pope, his commentaries, and if the pope continues this way, I will go back to praying and go back to the [Catholic] church. I am not joking.”^[373] Castro said that, when the pope came, “I promise to go to all his Masses and with satisfaction”.^[373]Francis with U.S. President Barack Obama, 27 March 2014

In May 2014, his visit to the State of Israel, where he delivered 13 speeches, was heavily publicized.^[374] Protests against his visit resulted in an alleged arson attempt at the Dormition Abbey.^[375] The cave under the Church of the Nativity caught fire the night after his visit.^[376]

In May 2015, Francis welcomed Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas to the Vatican. Several media outlets reported that Francis praised Abbas as “an angel of peace”, though his actual words were the following: “The angel of peace destroys the evil spirit of war. I thought about you: may you be an angel of peace.”^[377] The Vatican signed a treaty recognizing the state of Palestine.^[378] The Vatican issued statements concerning the hope that the peace talks could resume between Israel and Palestine. Abbas’ visit was on the occasion of the canonization of two Palestinian nuns.^[379]Francis shaking hands with Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov, behind Russian President Vladimir Putin, 10 June 2015 Crowd at the Koševo City Stadium in Sarajevo, celebrating a mass with Francis, June 2015

On 6 June 2015, Francis visited Sarajevo, the capital city of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He urged peace during his time in the religiously diverse city, known as the “Jerusalem of Europe”.^[380]

On 25 September 2015, Francis addressed the United Nations in New York City.^[381]

On 16 April 2016, he visited, together with Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew and Archbishop Ieronimos II of Athens, the Moria Refugee Camp on the Greek island of Lesbos, to call the attention of the world to the refugee issue. There the three Christian leaders signed a joint declaration.^[382]

In January 2017, Francis demanded the resignation of Matthew Festing, the 79th Prince and Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. The Pope’s demand came as a response to Festing and Cardinal Raymond Leo Burke firing Baron Albrecht von Boeselager from his position in the Order of Malta. The Order, in May 2017, appointed a new leader in the person of Fra’ Giacomo Dalla Torre del Tempio di Sanguinetto.^[383]

On 24 May 2017, Francis met with U.S. President Donald Trump in Vatican City, where they discussed the contributions of Catholics to the United States and to the world. They discussed issues of mutual concern, including how religious communities can combat human suffering in crisis regions, such as Syria, Libya, and ISIS-controlled territory. They also discussed terrorism and the radicalization of young people. The Vatican’s secretary of state, Pietro Parolin, raised the issue of climate change and encouraged Trump to remain in the Paris Agreement.^[384] At the 2017 World Food Day ceremony, Francis reiterated that “we see the consequences [of climate change] every day” and that we “know how the problems are to be faced … [t]hanks to scientific knowledge.” He said that “the international community has drawn up the necessary legal instruments, such as the Paris Agreement, from which however some are withdrawing. There is a re-emergence of the nonchalance towards the delicate balances of ecosystems, the presumption of being able to manipulate and control the planet’s limited resources, and greed for profit.”^[385]Francis with Polish Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki and his family, Vatican City, June 2018

Francis visited Ireland in 2018, in what was the first papal tour of the country since John Paul II’s historic trip in 1979.^[386] While in Ireland he apologized for abuses by clergy in the United States and Ireland.^[387]Francis in Bethlehem, Palestine, 25 May 2014

In February 2019, Francis visited Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, on the invitation of Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan. Francis became the first pope to hold a papal Mass on the Arabian Peninsula, with more than 120,000 attendees in the Zayed Sports City Stadium.^[388]

Francis made the plight of refugees and migrants “a core component of his pastoral work”, and has defended their rights in dialogue both with Europe and with the United States. He went on to place a statue in St. Peter’s Square to bring attention to the Christian imperative involved in their situation (Hebrews 13:2).^[389]^[390]^[391]

In March 2021, Pope Francis held a historic meeting with Iraq‘s top Shi’ite cleric, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, and visited the birthplace of the Prophet Abraham, Ur. Giving a message of peaceful coexistence, he and the Iraqi cleric urged the Muslim and Christian communities to work together in unity for peace.^[392]^[393]

On 9 May 2021, Francis called for peace between Israel and Palestinians and an end to clashes in Jerusalem during his Regina caeli address.^[394]^[395]

On 1 September 2021, Francis publicly defended the dialogue with China on the appointment of new bishops. Francis stated that uneasy dialogue was better than no dialogue at all, and emphasized in improving strained ties with the Chinese government.^[396]

On All Souls’ Day, on 1 November 2021, Francis visited a war cemetery in Rome and paid tribute to fallen soldiers during the Battle of Anzio in World War II as well as at the Piave River, in Italy, during World War I. Francis also praised military casualties for “fighting for their homeland and values.” and called for global peace.^[397]^[398]

Public image[edit source]

External video

Why the only future worth building includes everyone, TED talks, April 2017, 17:51, in Italian with subtitles in 22 languages

Popular mainstream media frequently portray Francis either as a progressive papal reformer or with liberal, moderate values.^[399] The Vatican has claimed that Western news outlets often seek to portray his message with a less-doctrinal tone of papacy, in hopes of extrapolating his words to convey a more merciful and tolerant message.^[400]^[401] In the news media, both faithful and non-believers often refer to a “honeymoon” phase in which the pope has changed the tone on Catholic doctrines and supposedly initiated ecclesiastical reform in the Vatican.^[402]^[403]^[404] Media systems differ, too, not only in their coverage of Francis’s stances but also in how individual events are portrayed. His 2015 trip to Cuba is a prime example. During this trip, American-based AP and British-based Reuters highlighted the religious aspect of the pope’s journey while Prensa Latina, the official state media agency, depicted it as a diplomatic visit. American and British media were also more likely during this trip to show Francis interacting with regular Cubans compared to the official Cuban media, which showed Francis interacting with elites most often.^[405]

In December 2013, both Time and The Advocate magazines named the Pontiff as their “Person of the Year” in praise and hopes of reforming the Roman Curia while hoping to change the Catholic Church’s doctrine on various controversial issues. In addition, Esquire magazine named him as the “Best-dressed man” for 2013 for his simpler vestments often in tune with a modern simplistic design on sartorial fashion.^[406] Rolling Stone magazine followed in January 2014 by making the Pontiff their featured front cover.^[407]^[408] Fortune magazine also ranked Francis as number one in their list of 50 greatest leaders.^[409] On 5 November 2014, he was ranked by Forbes as the fourth most powerful person in the world and was the only non-political figure in the top ranking.^[410] In December 2016, Francis again made Forbes‘s list of “The World’s Most Powerful People”, ranking fifth.^[411]

In March 2013, a new song was dedicated to Francis and released in Brazilian Portuguese, European Portuguese, and Italian, titled Come Puoi (“How You Can”).^[136] Also in March, Pablo Buera, the mayor of La Plata, Argentina, announced that the city had renamed a section of a street leading up to a local cathedral Papa Francisco.^[412] There are already efforts to name other streets after him, as well as a school where he studied as a child.^[412] A proposal to create a commemorative coin as a tribute to Francis was made in Argentina’s lower house on 28 November 2013. On the coins it would read, “Tribute from the Argentine People to Pope Francis.” beneath his face.^[413] As of May 2013, sales of papal souvenirs, a sign of popularity, were up.^[414]

Francis presided over his first joint public wedding ceremony in a Nuptial Mass for 20 couples from the Archdiocese of Rome on 14 September 2014, just a few weeks before the start of the 5–19 October Extraordinary Synod of Bishops on the Family.^[415]^[e]

On 19 March 2016, Francis became the first pope to create an Instagram account.^[417] He broke records after having gained over one million followers in under twelve hours of the account being up.^[418] In 2019 Francis held a conference on the World Day of Social Communications highlighting the pros and cons of social media and urging users to use it as a source that liberates rather than enslaves.^[419] On 26 November 2020 Francis became the first pope to write an op-ed for The New York Times, addressing issues such as the coronavirus and the need for global solidarity.^[420] The Pontiff also used his op-ed to strongly critique those protesting COVID-19 restrictions.^[421]

In August 2021, rumors of a possible resignation arose due to health issues,^[422] but he dismissed those rumors in early September 2021, saying that he is “living a normal life.”^[423]

Distinctions[edit source]

Titles and styles[edit source]

The official form of address of the pope in English is His Holiness Pope Francis; in Latin, Franciscus, Episcopus Romae. Holy Father is among the other honorifics used for popes.^[424]

Foreign orders[edit source]

Bolivia: : Grand Collar of the Order of the Condor of the Andes (9 July 2015)^[425]^[426]
Bolivia: Order of Merit “Father Luis Espinal Camps” (9 July 2015)^[425]^[426]
Poland: : Order of the Smile (26 April 2016)^[427]

Awards[edit source]

Germany: International Charlemagne Prize of Aachen 2016.^[428]
“Person of the Year” by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (2015) for his request that all Catholics be kind to animals.^[429]
Was made an honorary Harlem Globetrotter on 7 May 2015.^[430]
Zayed Award for Human Fraternity in October 2020 for significant contributions to the service of humanity from around the world.^[431]^[432]

Academic honors[edit source]

Honorary Sommelier Diploma of the Italian Sommelier Association (2015).^[433]

Honorific eponyms and dedications[edit source]

Francis and President Aquino at Malacañan, 16 January 2015

Philippines: The Pope Francis Center for the Poor – Palo, Leyte (12 July 2015)^[434]
Ennio Morricone composed a Mass setting (Missa Papae Francisci) named after the pope, for the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the restoration of the Jesuit order. The performance aired on Rai 5 and was attended by former Italian President Giorgio Napolitano and other dignitaries.^[435]^[436]^[437]
The composer Ludger Stühlmeyer dedicated his work Klangrede – Sonnengesang des Franziskus, for choir (SATB) and instruments – to Pope Francis (Suae Sanctitati Papae Francisci dedicat.). First performance: Capella Mariana 4 October 2015.^[438]

Appreciation[edit source]

In the oratorio Laudato si’ by Peter Reulein (music) written on a libretto by Helmut Schlegel OFM, the figure of Francis appears next to Mary, Francis of Assisi, and Clare of Assisi. In the oratorio, Pope Franziskus suggests a bridge from the crucifixion scene on Golgotha to the suffering of the present. He emphasizes the female talent and the importance of the charism of women for church and society. The texts of the encyclicals Laudato si’ and Evangelii gaudium were used. The motto of the Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy also plays a central role.^[439] The oratorio was premiered on 6 November 2016 in the Limburg Cathedral.^[440]

Coat of arms[edit source]

Main article: Coat of arms of Pope FrancisFurther information: Papal coats of arms

NotesPope Francis’s initial grant of arms by the Holy See was as Archbishop of Buenos Aires, when he was Cardinal Bergoglio,^[129] in which the depiction of the Star and Spikenard were tinctured Argent.
Following his election as Pontiff these are now tinctured Or. The first version of His Holiness‘ arms released by the Vatican Press Office depicted a five-pointed Star from Bergoglio’s archiepiscopal version, but upon election as Pope his coat of arms assumed an eight-pointed star with the representation of the spikenard also being suitably differenced.CrestNot applicable to prelatesHelm Bishop’s mitreEscutcheonAzure on a Sun in Splendour Or the IHS Christogram ensigned with a Cross Paté fiché piercing the H Gules all above three Nails fanwise points to centre Sable, and in dexter base a Mullet of eight points and in sinister base a Spikenard flower Or^[441]MottoMISERANDO ATQUE ELIGENDO
(Latin for “BY GIVING MERCY AND BY CHOOSING“)Other elementsKeys of Peter behind HH‘s shield and Papal mantlingSymbolism(On the shield) Jesuit emblem: In reference to Francis being a Jesuit, the uppermost charge on the shield is the emblem of the Society of Jesus.^[442] This charge displays a radiating sun within which is the monogram of the Holy Name of Jesus in red, with a red cross surmounting the H and three black nails below the H.^[442] Eight-pointed star: a long-standing symbol of the Virgin Mary. Spikenard alias nard: this flower represents Saint Joseph; in Hispanic iconographic tradition St Joseph is often depicted holding a branch of spikenard.^[443]

Writings[edit source]

Main article: Pope Francis bibliography

By Pope Francis
Library resources about Pope Francis
Resources in your library Resources in other libraries
Resources in your library Resources in other libraries

Pope Francis has written a variety of books, encyclicals, and other writings.

Music album[edit source]

Main article: Wake Up! (Pope Francis album)

Wake Up! was released on 27 November 2015 by the label Believe Digital and contains speeches by Francis and accompanying music, including rock music.^[444]^[445]^[446]

Films[edit source]

Documentary film[edit source]

By 2015, there were two biographical films about Francis: Call Me Francesco (Italy, 2015), starring Rodrigo de la Serna, and Francis: Pray for me (Argentina, 2015), starring Darío Grandinetti.^[447]

Pope Francis: A Man of His Word is a documentary film with Swiss-Italian-French-German co-production, co-written and directed by Wim Wenders.^[448] It premiered at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival and was released in the United States on 18 May 2018.^[449] It includes extensive sections of interviews as well as stock footage from archives.^[450]

On 21 October 2020, the documentary Francesco directed by film producer Evgeny Afineevsky premiered.^[451]^[452]

Portrayal in film[edit source]

Francis is played by Jonathan Pryce in the biographical drama film The Two Popes (2019), costarring with Anthony Hopkins who plays Pope Benedict XVI.^[453]

Notes[edit source]

^ Press reports have provided a variety of translations for the phrase. According to Vatican Radio: “Pope Francis has chosen the motto Miserando atque eligendo, meaning lowly but chosen; literally in Latin by having mercy, by choosing him. The motto is one Francis used as bishop. It is taken from the homilies of the Venerable Bede on Saint Matthew’s Gospel relating to his vocation: ‘Jesus saw the tax collector and by having mercy chose him as an apostle saying to him: Follow me.’”^[1]
^ Pronunciation: [ˈxoɾxe ˈmaɾjo βeɾˈɣoɣljo] (Spanish); [berˈɡɔʎʎo] (Italian)
^ This devotion has since spread to Brazil; it “attracts people with small problems.”^[49] Bergoglio had an image of Mary Untier of Knots inscribed on a chalice he presented to Pope Benedict XVI in 2005.^[50]
^ John Paul I, elected in 1978, took a new combination of already used names, in honor of his two immediate predecessors, John XXIII and Paul VI.^[167]
^ Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI did not do this during his eight-year reign from 2005 to 2013; his predecessor, Pope John Paul II, married a group of couples from all over the world in 2000, as part of the Jubilee for Families, and before that in 1994 during the Church’s Year of the Family, as well as presiding over a number of private marriages as pope.^[416]

References[edit source]

^ Scarisbrick, Veronica (18 March 2013). “Pope Francis: “Miserando atque eligendo”…” Vatican Radio. Archived from the original on 5 July 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
^ “Pope says he is not a Marxist, but defends criticism of capitalism”. The Guardian. 15 December 2013.
^ Sherwood, Harriet (7 September 2021). “Christian leaders unite to issue stark warning over climate crisis”. The Guardian. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
^ “Pope says popular movements are ‘antidote’ to populism”. Crux. 20 August 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2021.
^ Momigliano, Anna (23 May 2017). “Catholic Populists Have to Respect the Pope, but They Love Trump”. The Atlantic. Retrieved 20 June 2021.
^ Mills, Curt (31 October 2016). “Catholics and Lutherans Sign Joint Declaration”. U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k “Direttorju Ekklezjastiku 2016” (PDF) (in Maltese and English). The Church in Malta. 30 June 2016. pp. 1–2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2016.
^ Claudio Iván Remeseira: Pope Francis: A humble and outspoken man, and technically also Italian NBCLatino, 14 March 2013
^ Garrido, J. (16 March 2013). “Vida y trayectoria de Bergoglio en seis capítulos”. La Tercera. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
^ “Vatican Web site, from L’Osservatore Romano, Year LXIII, number 12: biography of the Holy Father Francis”. Holy See. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
^ “Regina María Sívori, su mamá”. La Nación. 17 March 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
^ Rice-Oxley, Mark (13 March 2013). “Pope Francis: the humble pontiff with practical approach to poverty”. London: The Guardian (UK). Retrieved 13 March 2013.
^ Donovan, Jeffrey (13 March 2013). “Argentina’s Cardinal Bergoglio Is Elected Pope Francis”. Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
^ Henderson, Barney (14 March 2013). “Pope Francis elected leader of Catholic Church: latest”. The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 14 March 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
^ Rosales & Olivera 2013, p. 5.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “Jorge is against regimes. It is because of fascism that our father emigrated”. La Stampa. 17 March 2013. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
^ “Los Bergoglio, la familia más sorprendida” [The Bergoglio, the most surprised family]. La Nación (in Spanish). 14 March 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
^ Holanda, Helládio (24 May 2019). People’s Pope (in European Portuguese). Clube de Autores (managed).
^ “3 relatives of pope killed in crash in Argentina – Chicago Tribune”. Chicago Tribune. 19 August 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
^ “CNS STORY: Pope asks prayers after great nephews, their mother die in car crash”. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
^ “La sobrina ‘artista’ del Papa presenta su obra en Madrid”. El Mundo. 3 March 2015.
^ “‘Escribir con el pincel’, el documental sobre la obra pictórica de Cristina Bergoglio, la sobrina del Papa Francisco”. Se Estrena, Antena 3. 27 June 2019.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “Jorge Bergoglio, un sacerdote jesuita de carrera” [Jorge Bergoglio, a career Jesuit priest]. La Nación (in Spanish). 13 March 2013.
^ “Biography: who is Jorge Mario Bergoglio?”. News.va. 13 March 2013. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
^ Reese, Thomas (3 June 2015), “Does Pope Francis have a MA in chemistry?”, National Catholic Reporter, retrieved 3 June 2015
^ “Does Pope Francis have a master’s degree in chemistry?”. National Catholic Reporter. 3 June 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
^ “Fact Check: False: Pope Francis Has a Master’s Degree in Chemistry”. Snopes.com. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
^ “Su etapa de laboratorista”. Clarín. 17 March 2013. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
^ Burke, Daniel (3 December 2013). “Pope: I was once a bar bouncer”. CNN. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
^ Chua, Howard (11 December 2013). “TIME’s Person of the Year 2013 Pope Francis, The People’s Pope”. Time. Retrieved 27 December 2013.
^ Lifschitz, Alejandro (13 March 2013). “Argentina’s pope a modest man focused on the poor”. Reuters. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
^ Club Atlético San Lorenzo de Almagro (14 March 2013). “Pope Francis is a card-carrying San Lorenzo supporter”.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c “Bergoglio, sobre todo ‘pastor’, tanguero y simpatizante de San Lorenzo” (in Spanish). Agencia Informativa Católica Argentina. 13 March 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
^ Sergio Rubin; Francesca Ambrogetti, Pope Francis – Conversations with Jorge Bergoglio. pp. 45–46
^ “Pope Francis Spoke of Being ‘Dazzled’ by Girl, Possible Change of Celibacy Rule”. Balitang America. NBC News. 20 March 2013. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019.
^ “En 1958, Bergoglio hizo su noviciado en Chile”. La Segunda (in Spanish). 13 March 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
^ Lanser, p. 96
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Rosales & Olivera, p. 42
^ “Biography of the Holy Father Francis”. The Holy See. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
^ “Biografía: ¿Quién es Jorge Bergoglio?”. Vatican. 13 March 2013. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
^ “The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church – Biographies – A”. Florida International University. Archived from the original on 18 March 2014. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “Why Bergoglio travels so little”. Vatican Insider. 29 March 2014. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
^ The Vatican Today, 13 March 2013, Biography: who is Jorge Mario Bergoglio?. Retrieved 6 April 2013
^ The Irish Independent, 30 March 2013, [1]. Retrieved 10 November 2013
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Austen Ivereigh, The Great Reformer: Francis and the Making of a Radical Pope, Henry Holt 2014
^ “Neuigkeiten 14.03”. Hochschule. Philosophisch-Theologische Hochschule Sankt Georgen. Retrieved 14 March 2013. …einige Monate in Sankt Georgen verbrachte, um sich mit einzelnen Professoren über ein Dissertationsprojekt zu beraten. Zu einem Abschluss in Sankt Georgen ist es nicht gekommen.
^ “Biografía de Jorge Bergoglio” (in Spanish). El Litoral. 14 March 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
^ Baumann, Andrea (15 March 2013). “Was Papst Franziskus in Augsburg machte” (in German). Augsburger Allgemeine. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
^ Bellos, Alex (23 December 2001). “Virgin painting ties Brazilians in knots”. London: The Guardian (UK). Retrieved 14 March 2013.
^ Jiménez, Pablo (14 March 2013). “The Pope’s chalice: silver-made, austere and featuring Our Lady of Luján”. Buenos Aires Herald. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
^ Paul Vallely, Pope Francis: Untying the Knots, Bloomsbury, 2013
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Shkodziska, Oksana (13 March 2013). “Patriarch Sviatoslav: Newly Elected Pope Knows Ukrainian Catholic Church, its Liturgy and Spirituality”. Religious Information Service of Ukraine. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “To understand Pope Francis, look to the Jesuits”. ncronline.org. 12 March 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
^ “Setting the Record Straight on Pope Francis: A Reply to Frank Brennan”. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 7 January 2015.
^ Vallely, Paul (2013). Pope Francis. ISBN 978-1-4729-0372-3.
^ “Is Pope Francis still a Jesuit?”. National Catholic Reporter. 18 March 2013. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
^ The titular see of Auca, established in 1969, is seated at Villafranca Montes de Oca, Spain: Titular See of Auca, Spain.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c “Bergoglio, Jorge Mario”. Breve biografía de obispos (in Spanish). La Agencia Informativa Católica Argentina. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
^ “Francis Toughened by Argentine Politics Ready for Papal Test”. Bloomberg. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
^ Glatz, Carol (15 March 2013). “Pope’s episcopal motto comes from homily by English doctor of church”. Catholic News Service. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
^ “Jesuit Argentine Cardinal Bergoglio elected pope, takes name Francis”. jesuit.org. Archived from the original on 16 March 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
^ “Haley Cohen, “Slum Priest: Pope Francis’ Early Year”, The Atlantic, 20 March 2013″. The Atlantic. 20 March 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
^ Puella, Phillip (9 May 2014). “U.N. should encourage redistribution of wealth, pope says”. Reuters. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
^ Coday, Dennis (4 April 2013). “John Allen, “Former aide says Francis may close Vatican Bank””. National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
^ Magister, Sandro (2 December 2002). “Jorge Mario Bergoglio, Profession: Servant of the Servants of God”. L’espresso. Rome, Italy: Gruppo Editoriale L’Espresso. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
^ Hebblethwaite, Margaret (14 March 2013). “The Pope Francis I know”. The Guardian. London, England. Retrieved 16 March 2013. Luro talked to me at length about her friend, of whom she has the highest opinion, and told me how she would write to him almost weekly, and he would always reply by ringing her up and having a short chat. When Podesta was dying, Bergoglio was the only Catholic cleric who went to visit him in hospital, and, when he died, the only one who showed public recognition of his great contribution to the Argentinian church.
^ Calloni, Stella (13 March 2013). “Acusado de tener vínculos con la dictadura; la derecha lo defiende”. La Jornada (in Spanish). Mexico City, Mexico: Desarrollo de Medios S.A. de C.V. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ Magister, Sandro (2 December 2002). “Jorge Mario Bergoglio, Profession: Servant of the Servants of God”. L’espresso. Rome, Italy: Gruppo Editoriale L’Espresso. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
^ Pullella, Philip (21 March 2013). “Pope to hold major Holy Week service in youth jail”. Reuters. London. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
^ Sergio Rubin, “Regresó la misa en latín, con mujeres cubiertas por mantillas.” Clarin.(17 September 2007). Archived..
^ “El latín volvió a las misas” (in Spanish). Línea Capital. 17 September 2007. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
^ “Elige Sus Nuevas Autoridades La Conferencia Episcopal”. Mercedes Ya. 7 November 2005. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
^ “El cardenal Bergoglio fue reelegido frente a la Conferencia Episcopal”. DERF. 11 November 2008. Archived from the original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
^ Speciale, Alessandro (15 March 2013). “Vatican defends Pope Francis’ actions during Argentina’s ‘Dirty War’”. The Washington Post. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
^ “Bergoglio presenta su renuncia como arzobispo de Buenos Aires, aunque seguirá en el cargo”. Terra Noticias. 15 December 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
^ “X Ordinary General Assembly (30 September – 27 October 2001)”. Synod of Bishops. Holy See. Archived from the original on 19 February 2011. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
^ Poirier, José Maria (13 March 2013). “Features Quiet thunder in Argentina”. Catholic Herald. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
^ “Synodus Episcoporum Bulletin 30 September – 27 October 2001”. Holy See Press Office. 27 October 2001. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d Allen Jr., John L. (3 March 2013). “Profile: New pope, Jesuit Bergoglio, was runner-up in 2005 conclave”. National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
^ Rubin, Sergio (14 March 2013). “‘El Jesuita,’ biography of Jorge Bergoglio, tells of Pope Francis’ humble beginnings in the church that he maintained throughout his cardinalship”. Daily News. New York. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Falasca, Sefania (November 2007). “What I would have said at the Consistory”. 30 Giorni. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
^ Maureen O’Riordan. “Saint Therese of Lisieux – “Saint Therese of Lisieux: A Gateway” Blog – Pope Francis and Saint Thérèse of Lisieux: “To depend solely on the tenderness of God””. Thérèse of Lisieux. Retrieved 27 December 2013.
^ “Argentine Cardinal Named in Kidnap Lawsuit”. Los Angeles Times. 17 April 2005. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
^ Allen, Jr., John L. (14 April 2005). “Handicapping the conclave”. National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “Cardinal breaks conclave vow of secrecy”. CNN. Associated Press. 23 September 2005. Archived from the original on 1 October 2005. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
^ Wooden, Cindy (23 September 2005). “Article based on diary says German cardinal became pope with 84 votes”. Catholic News. Archived from the original on 28 September 2005. Article gives numbers for the four votes; Ratzinger had most votes, followed by Bergoglio.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Rubin, p. 13
^ Tosatti, Marco. “Ecco come andò davvero il Conclave del 2005”. La Stampa (in Italian). Retrieved 30 January 2017. According to the source, Cardinal Bergoglio begged “almost in tears” (“quasi in lacrime” in Italian)
^ Rubin, p. 15
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^ “The Irish Times view on the pope and same-sex civil unions: a welcome shift in tone”. The Irish Times. 22 October 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020. The context of his comments also makes clear that he approves of same-sex adoption. That is a timely affirmation – in 10 days the US supreme court will hear arguments involving the refusal of a Catholic social service agency in Philadelphia to place foster children with same-sex couples.
^ “Pope Francis Calls for Civil Union Law for Same-Sex Couples, in Shift From Vatican Stance”. NCR. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
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^ KAREL JANICEK. “In value clash with West, Slovakia votes on gay rights curb”. AP Bigstory. Associated Press.
^ J Lester Feder. “Pope Endorses Referendum Denying Marriage And Adoption Rights To Same-Sex Couples”. Buzzfeed.
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^ “Tens of thousands pack stadium for first papal mass on Arabian Peninsula”. Reuters. 5 February 2019.
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^ McGough, Michael (1 January 2014). “Pope Francis named Esquire’s ‘Best Dressed Man of 2013’ – but why?”. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
^ “Pope Francis’ Gentle Revolution: Inside Rolling Stone’s New Issue”. Rolling Stone. 28 January 2014.
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^ Donadio, Rachel (25 May 2013). “Francis’ Humility and Emphasis on the Poor Strike a New Tone at the Vatican”. The New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2013. It was so hard to sell anything under Benedict. This pope attracts huge crowds, and they all want to bring back home something with his smiling face on it.
^ “Pope marries 20 cohabiting couples in sign of papacy shift”. BBC News. 14 September 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
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^ Missa Papae Francisci (Morricone). RAI 5. (Napolitano appears at 32:41 and greets Morricone at 33:07) (in Italian)
^ In: Offenbarungen – Tage Neuer Kirchenmusik. Begleitheft, München 2015, S. 15.
^ Reulein, Peter; Schlegel, Helmut (2016). Laudato si’ / Ein franziskanisches Magnificat. Limburg an der Lahn: Dehm Verlag. p. 230. ISBN 978-3-943302-34-9. ISMN 979-0-50226-047-7.
^ “Festkonzert zum Jubiläum des Referates Kirchenmusik / Laudato si’ – Oratorium von Peter Reulein (Uraufführung)” (in German). Liebfrauen, Frankfurt. 2016. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
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^ Donnlly, Gabrielle (19 December 2019). “‘You couldn’t help but be moved spiritually’: Anthony Hopkins and Jonathan Pryce interviewed”. Catholic Herald. Retrieved 9 February 2020.

Bibliography[edit source]

Allen, John L. (2015). The Francis Miracle: Inside the Transformation of the Pope and the Church. New York: Time. ISBN 978-1-61893-131-3.
Borghesi, Massimo (2018) [Italian original, 2017]. The Mind of Pope Francis: Jorge Mario Bergoglio’s Intellectual Journey. Translated by Hudock, Barry. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-8790-1.
Castagnaro, Mauro; Eugenio, Ludovica (2013). Il Dissenso Soffocato: un’agenda per Papa Francesco [Dissent Stifled: an agenda for Pope Francis]. Molfetta: La Meridiana. ISBN 978-8861533240.
Colonna, Marcantonio (2018). The Dictator Pope: The Inside Story of the Francis Papacy. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 978-1-62157-832-1.
Douthat, Ross (2018). To Change the Church: Pope Francis and the Future of Catholicism. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-5011-4692-3.
Ivereigh, Austen (2014). The Great Reformer: Francis and the Making of a Radical Pope. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 978-1-62779-157-1.
Lawler, Philip F. (2018). Lost Shepherd: How Pope Francis is Misleading His Flock. Washington DC: Regnery Gateway. ISBN 978-1-62157-722-5.
Reato, Ceferino (2015). Doce noches [Twelve nights] (in Spanish). Argentina: Sudamericana. ISBN 978-950-07-5203-9.
Rosales, Luis; Olivera, Daniel (2013). Francis: A pope for our time. United States: Umanix Books. ISBN 978-1-63006-002-2. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
Rubin, Sergio; Ambrogetti, Francesca (2010). El Jesuita [The jesuit] (in Spanish) (1 ed.). Argentina: Vergara Editor. ISBN 978-950-15-2450-5.
Vallely, Paul (2015). Pope Francis: Untying the Knots: The Struggle for the Soul of Catholicism (Revised and expanded ed.). London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4729-0370-9.
Willey, David (2015). The Promise of Francis: The Man, the Pope, and the Challenge of Change. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4767-8905-7.

External links[edit source]

External image
White smoke after election

Vatican: the Holy See – Vatican web site
- Vatican Web site: Official biography of Jorge Mario Bergoglio (published on the occasion of the Conclave by the Holy See Press Office, with the information provided by the cardinals themselves)
Pope Francis on Twitter (Official Twitter account)
Pope Francis on Instagram (Official Instagram account)
Pope Francis’s channel on YouTube (Official Vatican YouTube page, covering the pope and related interests)
Pope Francis at Curlie
Appearances on C-SPAN

Catholic Church titles
Preceded byTheodor Hubrich	Titular Bishop of Auca 20 May 1992 – 3 June 1997	Succeeded byMieczysław Cisło
Preceded byAntonio Quarracino	Archbishop of Buenos Aires 28 February 1998 – 13 March 2013	Succeeded byMario Aurelio Poli
Ordinary of Argentina of the Eastern Rite 6 November 1998 – 13 March 2013
Preceded byAugusto Vargas Alzamora	Cardinal-Priest of San Roberto Bellarmino 21 February 2001 – 13 March 2013
Preceded byEduardo Vicente Mirás	President of the Episcopal Conference of Argentina 8 November 2005 – 8 November 2011	Succeeded byJosé María Arancedo
Preceded byBenedict XVI	Pope 13 March 2013 – present	Incumbent

15 Лютого, 2022

TOP1000 – Religion

Winston Churchill

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill,^[a] KG, OM, CH, TD, DL, FRS, RA (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945, during the Second World War, and again from 1951 to 1955. Best known for his wartime leadership as Prime Minister, Churchill was also a Sandhurst-educated soldier, a Boer War hero, a Nobel Prize-winning writer and historian, a prolific painter, and one of the longest-serving politicians in British history. Apart from two years between 1922 and 1924, he was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1900 to 1964 and represented a total of five constituencies. Ideologically an economic liberal and imperialist, he was for most of his career a member of the Conservative Party, which he led from 1940 to 1955. He was a member of the Liberal Party from 1904 to 1924.

Of mixed English and American parentage, Churchill was born in Oxfordshire to a wealthy, aristocratic family. He joined the British Army in 1895 and saw action in British India, the Anglo-Sudan War, and the Second Boer War, gaining fame as a war correspondent and writing books about his campaigns. Elected a Conservative MP in 1900, he defected to the Liberals in 1904. In H. H. Asquith‘s Liberal government, Churchill served as President of the Board of Trade and Home Secretary, championing prison reform and workers’ social security. As First Lord of the Admiralty during the First World War, he oversaw the Gallipoli Campaign but, after it proved a disaster, he was demoted to Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He resigned in November 1915 and joined the Royal Scots Fusiliers on the Western Front for six months. In 1917, he returned to government under David Lloyd George and served successively as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, and Secretary of State for the Colonies, overseeing the Anglo-Irish Treaty and British foreign policy in the Middle East. After two years out of Parliament, he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in Stanley Baldwin‘s Conservative government, returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure and depressing the UK economy.

Out of government during his so-called “wilderness years” in the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in calling for British rearmament to counter the growing threat of militarism in Nazi Germany. At the outbreak of the Second World War he was re-appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. In May 1940, he became Prime Minister, replacing Neville Chamberlain. Churchill formed a national government and oversaw British involvement in the Allied war effort against the Axis powers, resulting in victory in 1945. After the Conservatives’ defeat in the 1945 general election, he became Leader of the Opposition. Amid the developing Cold War with the Soviet Union, he publicly warned of an “iron curtain” of Soviet influence in Europe and promoted European unity. He lost the 1950 election, but was returned to office in 1951. His second term was preoccupied with foreign affairs, especially Anglo-American relations and the preservation of the British Empire. Domestically, his government emphasised house-building and completed the development of a nuclear weapon (begun by his predecessor). In declining health, Churchill resigned as Prime Minister in 1955, although he remained an MP until 1964. Upon his death in 1965, he was given a state funeral.

Widely considered one of the 20th century’s most significant figures, Churchill remains popular in the UK and Western world, where he is seen as a victorious wartime leader who played an important role in defending Europe’s liberal democracy against the spread of fascism. He is also praised as a social reformer. However, he has been criticised for some wartime events – notably the area bombing of German cities and his government’s response to the Bengal famine – and also for his imperialist views, including comments on race.

Early life[edit source]

Main article: Early life of Winston Churchill

Childhood and schooling: 1874–1895[edit source]

Jennie Spencer Churchill with her two sons, Jack (left) and Winston (right) in 1889.

Churchill was born on 30 November 1874 at his family’s ancestral home, Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire.^[2] On his father’s side, he was a member of the British aristocracy as a direct descendant of the 1st Duke of Marlborough.^[3] His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, representing the Conservative Party, had been elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Woodstock in 1873.^[4] His mother, Jennie, was a daughter of Leonard Jerome, a wealthy American businessman.^[5]

In 1876, Churchill’s paternal grandfather, John Spencer-Churchill, was appointed Viceroy of Ireland, then part of the United Kingdom. Randolph became his private secretary and the family relocated to Dublin.^[6] Winston’s brother, Jack, was born there in 1880.^[7] Throughout much of the 1880s, Randolph and Jennie were effectively estranged,^[8] and the brothers were mostly cared for by their nanny, Elizabeth Everest.^[9] When she died in 1895, Churchill wrote that “she had been my dearest and most intimate friend during the whole of the twenty years I had lived”.^[10]

Churchill began boarding at St George’s School in Ascot, Berkshire, at age seven but was not academic and his behaviour was poor.^[11] In 1884 he transferred to Brunswick School in Hove, where his academic performance improved.^[12] In April 1888, aged 13, he narrowly passed the entrance exam for Harrow School.^[13] His father wanted him to prepare for a military career and so his last three years at Harrow were in the army form.^[14] After two unsuccessful attempts to gain admittance to the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, he succeeded on his third.^[15] He was accepted as a cadet in the cavalry, starting in September 1893.^[16] His father died in January 1895, a month after Churchill graduated from Sandhurst.^[17]

Cuba, India, and Sudan: 1895–1899[edit source]

Churchill in the military dress uniform of the 4th Queen’s Own Hussars at Aldershot in 1895.^[18]

In February 1895, Churchill was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 4th Queen’s Own Hussars regiment of the British Army, based at Aldershot.^[19] Eager to witness military action, he used his mother’s influence to get himself posted to a war zone.^[20] In the autumn of 1895, he and his friend Reggie Barnes, then a subaltern, went to Cuba to observe the war of independence and became involved in skirmishes after joining Spanish troops attempting to suppress independence fighters.^[21] Churchill sent reports about the conflict to the Daily Graphic in London.^[22] He proceeded to New York City and, in admiration of the United States, wrote to his mother about “what an extraordinary people the Americans are!”^[23] With the Hussars, he went to Bombay in October 1896.^[24] Based in Bangalore, he was in India for 19 months, visiting Calcutta three times and joining expeditions to Hyderabad and the North West Frontier.^[25]

In India, Churchill began a self-education project,^[26] reading a range of authors including Plato, Edward Gibbon, Charles Darwin and Thomas Babington Macaulay.^[27] The books were sent to him by his mother, with whom he shared frequent correspondence when abroad. In order to learn about politics, he also asked his mother to send him copies of The Annual Register, the political almanac.^[28] In one 1898 letter to her, he referred to his religious beliefs, saying: “I do not accept the Christian or any other form of religious belief”.^[29] Churchill had been christened in the Church of England^[30] but, as he related later, he underwent a virulently anti-Christian phase in his youth,^[31] and as an adult was an agnostic.^[32] In another letter to one of his cousins, he referred to religion as “a delicious narcotic” and expressed a preference for Protestantism over Roman Catholicism because he felt it “a step nearer Reason”.^[33]

Interested in British parliamentary affairs,^[34] he declared himself “a Liberal in all but name”, adding that he could never endorse the Liberal Party‘s support for Irish home rule.^[35] Instead, he allied himself to the Tory democracy wing of the Conservative Party and on a visit home, gave his first public speech for the party’s Primrose League at Claverton Down, near Bath.^[36] Mixing reformist and conservative perspectives, he supported the promotion of secular, non-denominational education while opposing women’s suffrage.^[37]

Churchill volunteered to join Bindon Blood‘s Malakand Field Force in its campaign against Mohmand rebels in the Swat Valley of north-west India. Blood accepted him on condition that he was assigned as a journalist, the beginning of Churchill’s writing career.^[38] He returned to Bangalore in October 1897 and there wrote his first book, The Story of the Malakand Field Force, which received positive reviews.^[39] He also wrote his only work of fiction, Savrola, a Ruritanian romance.^[40] To keep himself fully occupied, Churchill embraced writing as what Roy Jenkins calls his “whole habit”, especially through his political career when he was out of office. Writing was his main safeguard against recurring depression, which he referred to as his “black dog”.^[41]

Using his contacts in London, Churchill got himself attached to General Kitchener’s campaign in the Sudan as a 21st Lancers subaltern while, additionally, working as a journalist for The Morning Post.^[42] After fighting in the Battle of Omdurman on 2 September 1898, the 21st Lancers were stood down.^[43] In October, Churchill returned to England and began writing The River War, an account of the campaign which was published in November 1899; it was at this time that he decided to leave the army.^[44] He was critical of Kitchener’s actions during the war, particularly the latter’s unmerciful treatment of enemy wounded and his desecration of Muhammad Ahmad‘s tomb in Omdurman.^[45]

On 2 December 1898, Churchill embarked for India to settle his military business and complete his resignation from the 4th Hussars. He spent a lot of his time there playing polo, the only ball sport in which he was ever interested. Having left the Hussars, he sailed from Bombay on 20 March 1899, determined to launch a career in politics.^[46]

Politics and South Africa: 1899–1901[edit source]

Churchill in 1900 around the time of his first election to Parliament.^[47]

Seeking a parliamentary career, Churchill spoke at Conservative meetings^[48] and was selected as one of the party’s two parliamentary candidates for the June 1899 by-election in Oldham, Lancashire.^[49] While campaigning in Oldham, Churchill referred to himself as “a Conservative and a Tory Democrat”.^[50] Although the Oldham seats had previously been held by the Conservatives, the result was a narrow Liberal victory.^[51]

Anticipating the outbreak of the Second Boer War between Britain and the Boer Republics, Churchill sailed to South Africa as a journalist for the Morning Post under the editorship of James Nicol Dunn.^[52]^[53] In October, he travelled to the conflict zone near Ladysmith, then besieged by Boer troops, before heading for Colenso.^[54] After his train was derailed by Boer artillery shelling, he was captured as a prisoner of war (POW) and interned in a Boer POW camp in Pretoria.^[55] In December, Churchill escaped from the prison and evaded his captors by stowing away aboard freight trains and hiding in a mine. He eventually made it to safety in Portuguese East Africa.^[56] His escape attracted much publicity.^[57]

In January 1900, he briefly rejoined the army as a lieutenant in the South African Light Horse regiment, joining Redvers Buller‘s fight to relieve the Siege of Ladysmith and take Pretoria.^[58] He was among the first British troops into both places. He and his cousin, the 9th Duke of Marlborough, demanded and received the surrender of 52 Boer prison camp guards.^[59] Throughout the war, he had publicly chastised anti-Boer prejudices, calling for them to be treated with “generosity and tolerance”,^[60] and after the war he urged the British to be magnanimous in victory.^[61] In July, having resigned his lieutenancy, he returned to Britain. His Morning Post despatches had been published as London to Ladysmith via Pretoria and had sold well.^[62]

Churchill rented a flat in London’s Mayfair, using it as his base for the next six years. He stood again as one of the Conservative candidates at Oldham in the October 1900 general election, securing a narrow victory to become a Member of Parliament at age 25.^[63] In the same month, he published Ian Hamilton’s March, a book about his South African experiences,^[64]^[65] which became the focus of a lecture tour in November through Britain, America and Canada. Members of Parliament were unpaid and the tour was a financial necessity. In America, Churchill met Mark Twain, President McKinley and Vice President Theodore Roosevelt; he did not get on well with Roosevelt.^[66] Later, in spring 1901, he gave more lectures in Paris, Madrid and Gibraltar.^[67]

Conservative MP: 1901–1904[edit source]

Churchill in 1904 when he “crossed the floor“.

In February 1901, Churchill took his seat in the House of Commons, where his maiden speech gained widespread press coverage.^[68] He associated with a group of Conservatives known as the Hughligans,^[69] but he was critical of the Conservative government on various issues, especially increases in army funding. He believed that additional military expenditure should go to the navy.^[70] This upset the Conservative front bench but was supported by Liberals, with whom he increasingly socialised, particularly Liberal Imperialists like H. H. Asquith.^[71] In this context, Churchill later wrote that he “drifted steadily to the left” of parliamentary politics.^[72] He privately considered “the gradual creation by an evolutionary process of a Democratic or Progressive wing to the Conservative Party”,^[73] or alternately a “Central Party” to unite the Conservatives and Liberals.^[74]

By 1903, there was real division between Churchill and the Conservatives, largely because he opposed their promotion of economic protectionism. As a free trader, he took part in the foundation of the Free Food League.^[22] Churchill sensed that the animosity of many party members would prevent him from gaining a Cabinet position under a Conservative government. The Liberal Party was then attracting growing support, and so his defection in 1904 may also have been influenced by personal ambition.^[75] He increasingly voted with the Liberals against the government.^[76] For example, he opposed an increase in military expenditure;^[77] he supported a Liberal bill to restore legal rights to trade unions;^[76] and he opposed the introduction of tariffs on goods imported into the British Empire, describing himself as a “sober admirer” of the principles of free trade.^[78] Arthur Balfour‘s government announced protectionist legislation in October 1903.^[79] Two months later, incensed by Churchill’s criticism of the government, the Oldham Conservative Association informed him that it would not support his candidature at the next general election.^[80]

In May 1904, Churchill opposed the government’s proposed Aliens Bill, designed to curb Jewish migration into Britain.^[81] He stated that the bill would “appeal to insular prejudice against foreigners, to racial prejudice against Jews, and to labour prejudice against competition” and expressed himself in favour of “the old tolerant and generous practice of free entry and asylum to which this country has so long adhered and from which it has so greatly gained”.^[81] On 31 May 1904, he crossed the floor, defecting from the Conservatives to sit as a member of the Liberal Party in the House of Commons.^[82]

Liberal MP: 1904–1908[edit source]

Main article: Winston Churchill’s Liberal Party years, 1904–1924 Churchill and German Kaiser Wilhelm II during a military manoeuvre near Breslau, Silesia, in 1906.

As a Liberal, Churchill attacked government policy and gained a reputation as a radical under the influences of John Morley and David Lloyd George.^[22] In December 1905, Balfour resigned as Prime Minister and King Edward VII invited the Liberal leader Henry Campbell-Bannerman to take his place.^[83] Hoping to secure a working majority in the House of Commons, Campbell-Bannerman called a general election in January 1906, which the Liberals won.^[84] Churchill won the Manchester North West seat.^[85] In the same month, his biography of his father was published;^[86] he received an advance payment of £8,000.^[87] It was generally well received.^[88] It was also at this time that the first biography of Churchill himself, written by the Liberal Alexander MacCallum Scott, was published.^[89]

In the new government, Churchill became Under-Secretary of State for the Colonial Office, a junior ministerial position that he had requested.^[90] He worked beneath the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Victor Bruce, 9th Earl of Elgin,^[91] and took Edward Marsh as his secretary; Marsh remained Churchill’s secretary for 25 years.^[92] Churchill’s first task was helping to draft a constitution for the Transvaal;^[93] and he helped oversee the formation of a government in the Orange Free State.^[94] In dealing with southern Africa, he sought to ensure equality between the British and the Boers.^[95] He also announced a gradual phasing out of the use of Chinese indentured labourers in South Africa; he and the government decided that a sudden ban would cause too much upset in the colony and might damage the economy.^[96] He expressed concerns about the relations between European settlers and the black African population; after the Zulu launched their Bambatha Rebellion in Natal, Churchill complained about the “disgusting butchery of the natives” by Europeans.^[97]

Asquith government: 1908–1915[edit source]

Main article: Winston Churchill’s Liberal Party years, 1904–1924

President of the Board of Trade: 1908–1910[edit source]

Churchill and his fiancée Clementine Hozier shortly before their marriage in 1908.

Asquith succeeded the terminally ill Campbell-Bannerman on 8 April 1908 and, four days later, Churchill was appointed President of the Board of Trade, succeeding Lloyd George who became Chancellor of the Exchequer.^[98] Aged 33, Churchill was the youngest Cabinet member since 1866.^[99] Newly appointed Cabinet ministers were legally obliged to seek re-election at a by-election and on 24 April, Churchill lost the Manchester North West by-election to the Conservative candidate by 429 votes.^[100] On 9 May, the Liberals stood him in the safe seat of Dundee, where he won comfortably.^[101]

In private life, Churchill proposed marriage to Clementine Hozier; they were married on 12 September 1908 at St Margaret’s, Westminster and honeymooned in Baveno, Venice, and Veveří Castle in Moravia.^[102]^[103] They lived at 33 Eccleston Square, London, and their first daughter, Diana, was born in July 1909.^[104]^[105] Churchill and Clementine were married for over 56 years until his death. The success of his marriage was important to Churchill’s career as Clementine’s unbroken affection provided him with a secure and happy background.^[22]

One of Churchill’s first tasks as a minister was to arbitrate in an industrial dispute among ship-workers and employers on the River Tyne.^[106] He afterwards established a Standing Court of Arbitration to deal with future industrial disputes,^[107] establishing a reputation as a conciliator.^[108] In Cabinet, he worked with Lloyd George to champion social reform.^[109] He promoted what he called a “network of State intervention and regulation” akin to that in Germany.^[110]

Continuing Lloyd George’s work,^[22] Churchill introduced the Mines Eight Hours Bill, which legally prohibited miners from working more than an eight-hour day.^[111] He introduced the Trade Boards Bill, creating Trade Boards which could prosecute exploitative employers. Passing with a large majority, it established the principle of a minimum wage and the right of workers to have meal breaks.^[112] In May 1909, he proposed the Labour Exchanges Bill to establish over 200 Labour Exchanges through which the unemployed would be assisted in finding employment.^[113] He also promoted the idea of an unemployment insurance scheme, which would be part-funded by the state.^[114]

To ensure funding for their reforms, Lloyd George and Churchill denounced Reginald McKenna‘s policy of naval expansion,^[115] refusing to believe that war with Germany was inevitable.^[116] As Chancellor, Lloyd George presented his “People’s Budget” on 29 April 1909, calling it a war budget to eliminate poverty. With Churchill as his closest ally,^[22] Lloyd George proposed unprecedented taxes on the rich to fund the Liberal welfare programmes.^[117] The budget was vetoed by the Conservative peers who dominated the House of Lords.^[118] His social reforms under threat, Churchill became president of the Budget League,^[22] and warned that upper-class obstruction could anger working-class Britons and lead to class war.^[119] The government called the January 1910 general election, which resulted in a narrow Liberal victory; Churchill retained his seat at Dundee.^[120] After the election, he proposed the abolition of the House of Lords in a cabinet memorandum, suggesting that it be replaced either by a unicameral system or by a new, smaller second chamber that lacked an in-built advantage for the Conservatives.^[121] In April, the Lords relented and the People’s Budget passed into law.^[122] Churchill continued to campaign against the House of Lords and assisted passage of the Parliament Act 1911 which reduced and restricted its powers.^[22]

Home Secretary: 1910–1911[edit source]

In February 1910, Churchill was promoted to Home Secretary, giving him control over the police and prison services;^[123] he implemented a prison reform programme.^[124] Measures included a distinction between criminal and political prisoners, with prison rules for the latter being relaxed.^[125] There were educational innovations like the establishment of libraries for prisoners,^[126] and a requirement for each prison to stage entertainments four times a year.^[127] The rules on solitary confinement were relaxed somewhat,^[128] and Churchill proposed the abolition of automatic imprisonment of those who failed to pay fines.^[129] Imprisonment of people aged between 16 and 21 was abolished except for the most serious offences.^[130] Churchill commuted 21 of the 43 capital sentences passed while he was Home Secretary.^[131]

One of the major domestic issues in Britain was women’s suffrage. Churchill supported giving women the vote, but he would only back a bill to that effect if it had majority support from the (male) electorate.^[132] His proposed solution was a referendum on the issue, but this found no favour with Asquith and women’s suffrage remained unresolved until 1918.^[133] Many suffragettes believed that Churchill was a committed opponent of women’s suffrage,^[134] and targeted his meetings for protest.^[133] In November 1910, the suffragist Hugh Franklin attacked Churchill with a whip; Franklin was arrested and imprisoned for six weeks.^[134]Churchill (second left) photographed at the Siege of Sidney Street.

In the summer of 1910, Churchill had to deal with the Tonypandy Riot, in which coal miners in the Rhondda Valley violently protested against their working conditions.^[135] The Chief Constable of Glamorgan requested troops to help police quell the rioting. Churchill, learning that the troops were already travelling, allowed them to go as far as Swindon and Cardiff, but blocked their deployment; he was concerned that the use of troops could lead to bloodshed. Instead he sent 270 London police, who were not equipped with firearms, to assist their Welsh counterparts.^[136] As the riots continued, he offered the protesters an interview with the government’s chief industrial arbitrator, which they accepted.^[137] Privately, Churchill regarded both the mine owners and striking miners as being “very unreasonable”.^[134] The Times and other media outlets accused him of being too soft on the rioters;^[138] in contrast, many in the Labour Party, which was linked to the trade unions, regarded him as having been too heavy-handed.^[139] In consequence of the latter, Churchill incurred the long-term suspicion of the labour movement.^[22]

Asquith called a general election in December 1910 and the Liberals were re-elected with Churchill secure in Dundee.^[140] In January 1911, Churchill became involved in the Siege of Sidney Street; three Latvian burglars had killed several police officers and hidden in a house in London’s East End, which was surrounded by police.^[141] Churchill stood with the police though he did not direct their operation.^[142] After the house caught fire, he told the fire brigade not to proceed into the house because of the threat posed by the armed men. Afterwards, two of the burglars were found dead.^[142] Although he faced criticism for his decision, he stated that he “thought it better to let the house burn down rather than spend good British lives in rescuing those ferocious rascals”.^[143]

In March 1911, Churchill introduced the second reading of the Coal Mines Bill in parliament. When implemented, it imposed stricter safety standards at coal mines.^[144] He also formulated the Shops Bill to improve the working conditions of shop workers; it faced opposition from shop owners and only passed into law in a much emasculated form.^[145] In April, Lloyd George introduced the first health and unemployment insurance legislation, the National Insurance Act 1911; Churchill had been instrumental in drafting it.^[145] In May, Clementine gave birth to their second child, Randolph, named after Churchill’s father.^[146] In response to escalating civil strife in 1911, Churchill sent troops into Liverpool to quell protesting dockers and rallied against a national railway strike.^[147]

During the Agadir Crisis of April 1911, when there was a threat of war between France and Germany, Churchill suggested an alliance with France and Russia to safeguard the independence of Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands to counter possible German expansionism.^[148] The Agadir Crisis had a profound effect on Churchill and he altered his views about the need for naval expansion.^[149]

First Lord of the Admiralty[edit source]

As First Lord of the Admiralty, Churchill’s London residency was Admiralty House (music room pictured).

In October 1911, Asquith appointed Churchill First Lord of the Admiralty,^[150] and he took up official residence at Admiralty House.^[151] He created a naval war staff^[22] and, over the next two and a half years, focused on naval preparation, visiting naval stations and dockyards, seeking to improve morale, and scrutinising German naval developments.^[152] After the German government passed its 1912 Naval Law to increase warship production, Churchill vowed that Britain would do the same and that for every new battleship built by the Germans, Britain would build two.^[153] He invited Germany to engage in a mutual de-escalation of naval building projects, but this was refused.^[154]

Churchill pushed for higher pay and greater recreational facilities for naval staff,^[155] an increase in the building of submarines,^[156] and a renewed focus on the Royal Naval Air Service, encouraging them to experiment with how aircraft could be used for military purposes.^[157] He coined the term “seaplane” and ordered 100 to be constructed.^[158] Some Liberals objected to his levels of naval expenditure; in December 1913 he threatened to resign if his proposal for four new battleships in 1914–15 was rejected.^[159] In June 1914, he convinced the House of Commons to authorise the government purchase of a 51 percent share in the profits of oil produced by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, to secure continued oil access for the Royal Navy.^[160]

The central issue in Britain at the time was Irish Home Rule and, in 1912, Asquith’s government introduced the Home Rule Bill.^[161] Churchill supported it and urged Ulster Unionists to accept it as he opposed the partition of Ireland.^[162] Later, following a Cabinet decision, he boosted the naval presence in Ireland to deal with any Unionist uprising.^[163] Seeking a compromise, Churchill suggested that Ireland remain part of a federal United Kingdom but this angered Liberals and Irish nationalists.^[164]

As First Lord, Churchill was tasked with overseeing Britain’s naval effort when the First World War began in August 1914.^[165] In the same month, the navy transported 120,000 British troops to France and began a blockade of Germany’s North Sea ports. Churchill sent submarines to the Baltic Sea to assist the Russian Navy and he sent the Marine Brigade to Ostend, forcing a reallocation of German troops.^[166] In September, Churchill assumed full responsibility for Britain’s aerial defence.^[167] On 7 October, Clementine gave birth to their third child, Sarah.^[168] In October, Churchill visited Antwerp to observe Belgian defences against the besieging Germans and promised British reinforcements for the city.^[169] Soon afterwards, however, Antwerp fell to the Germans and Churchill was criticised in the press.^[170] He maintained that his actions had prolonged resistance and enabled the Allies to secure Calais and Dunkirk.^[171] In November, Asquith called a War Council, consisting of himself, Lloyd George, Edward Grey, Kitchener, and Churchill.^[172] Churchill put forward some proposals including the development of the tank, and offered to finance its creation with Admiralty funds.^[173]

Churchill was interested in the Middle Eastern theatre and wanted to relieve Turkish pressure on the Russians in the Caucasus by staging attacks against Turkey in the Dardanelles. He hoped that, if successful, the British could even seize Constantinople.^[174] Approval was given and, in March 1915, an Anglo-French task force attempted a naval bombardment of Turkish defences in the Dardanelles. In April, the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, including the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), began its assault at Gallipoli.^[175] Both of these campaigns failed and Churchill was held by many MPs, particularly Conservatives, to be personally responsible.^[176]

In May, Asquith agreed under parliamentary pressure to form an all-party coalition government, but the Conservatives’ one condition of entry was that Churchill must be removed from the Admiralty.^[177] Churchill pleaded his case with both Asquith and Conservative leader Bonar Law, but had to accept demotion and became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.^[178]

Military service, 1915–1916[edit source]

Main article: Winston Churchill’s Liberal Party years, 1904–1924 Churchill commanding the 6th Battalion, the Royal Scots Fusiliers, 1916. His second-in-command, Archibald Sinclair, is on his right.

On 25 November 1915, Churchill resigned from the government, although he remained an MP. Asquith rejected his request to be appointed Governor-General of British East Africa.^[179]

Churchill decided to join the Army and was attached to the 2nd Grenadier Guards, on the Western Front.^[180] In January 1916, he was temporarily promoted to lieutenant-colonel and given command of the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers.^[181]^[182] After a period of training, the battalion was moved to a sector of the Belgian Front near Ploegsteert.^[183] For over three months, they faced continual shelling although no German offensive.^[184] Churchill narrowly escaped death when, during a visit by his staff officer cousin the 9th Duke of Marlborough, a large piece of shrapnel fell between them.^[185] In May, the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers were merged into the 15th Division. Churchill did not request a new command, instead securing permission to leave active service.^[186] His temporary promotion ended on 16 May, when he returned to the rank of major.^[187]

Back in the House of Commons, Churchill spoke out on war issues, calling for conscription to be extended to the Irish, greater recognition of soldiers’ bravery, and for the introduction of steel helmets for troops.^[188] He was frustrated at being out of office as a backbencher, but he was repeatedly blamed for Gallipoli, mainly by the pro-Conservative press.^[189] Churchill argued his case before the Dardanelles Commission, whose published report placed no blame on him personally for the campaign’s failure.^[190]

Lloyd George government: 1916–1922[edit source]

Main article: Winston Churchill’s Liberal Party years, 1904–1924

Minister of Munitions: 1917–1919[edit source]

In October 1916, Asquith resigned as Prime Minister and was succeeded by Lloyd George who, in May 1917, sent Churchill to inspect the French war effort.^[191] In July, Churchill was appointed Minister of Munitions.^[192] He quickly negotiated an end to a strike in munitions factories along the Clyde and increased munitions production.^[193] He ended a second strike, in June 1918, by threatening to conscript strikers into the army.^[194] In the House of Commons, Churchill voted in support of the Representation of the People Act 1918, which gave some British women the right to vote.^[195] In November 1918, four days after the Armistice, Churchill’s fourth child, Marigold, was born.^[196]

Secretary of State for War and Air: 1919–1921[edit source]

Churchill meets female workers at Georgetown’s filling works near Glasgow in October 1918.

With the war over, Lloyd George called a general election with voting on Saturday, 14 December 1918.^[197] During the election campaign, Churchill called for the nationalisation of the railways, a control on monopolies, tax reform, and the creation of a League of Nations to prevent future wars.^[198] He was returned as MP for Dundee and, although the Conservatives won a majority, Lloyd George was retained as Prime Minister.^[198] In January 1919, Lloyd George moved Churchill to the War Office as both Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air.^[199]

Churchill was responsible for demobilising the British Army,^[200] although he convinced Lloyd George to keep a million men conscripted for the British Army of the Rhine.^[201] Churchill was one of the few government figures who opposed harsh measures against the defeated Germany,^[196] and he cautioned against demobilising the German Army, warning that they may be needed as a bulwark against threats from the newly established Soviet Russia.^[202] He was an outspoken opponent of Vladimir Lenin‘s new Communist Party government in Russia.^[203] He initially supported the use of British troops to assist the anti-Communist White forces in the Russian Civil War,^[204] but soon recognised the desire of the British people to bring them home.^[205] After the Soviets won the civil war, Churchill proposed a cordon sanitaire around the country.^[206]

In the Irish War of Independence, he supported the use of the para-military Black and Tans to combat Irish revolutionaries.^[207] After British troops in Iraq clashed with Kurdish rebels, Churchill authorised two squadrons to the area, proposing that they be equipped with mustard gas to be used to “inflict punishment upon recalcitrant natives without inflicting grave injury upon them”.^[208] More broadly, he saw the occupation of Iraq as a drain on Britain and proposed, unsuccessfully, that the government should hand control of central and northern Iraq back to Turkey.^[209]

Secretary of State for the Colonies: 1921–1922[edit source]

Churchill as Secretary of State for the Colonies during his visit to Mandatory Palestine, Tel Aviv, 1921.Churchill’s main home was Chartwell in Kent. He purchased it in 1922 after his daughter Mary was born.

Churchill became Secretary of State for the Colonies in February 1921.^[210] The following month, the first exhibit of his paintings was held; it took place in Paris, with Churchill exhibiting under a pseudonym.^[210] In May, his mother died; followed in August by his two-year old daughter Marigold who succumbed to septicaemia.^[211] Marigold’s death devastated her parents and Churchill was haunted by the tragedy for the rest of his life.^[212]

Churchill was involved in negotiations with Sinn Féin leaders and helped draft the Anglo-Irish Treaty.^[213] Elsewhere, he was responsible for reducing the cost of occupying the Middle East,^[210] and was involved in the installations of Faisal I of Iraq and his brother Abdullah I of Jordan.^[214] Churchill travelled to Mandatory Palestine where, as a supporter of Zionism, he refused an Arab Palestinian petition to prohibit Jewish migration to Palestine.^[215] He did allow some temporary restrictions following the 1921 Jaffa riots.^[216]

In September 1922, Churchill’s fifth and last child, Mary, was born, and in the same month he purchased Chartwell, in Kent, which became his family home for the rest of his lifetime.^[217] In October 1922, he underwent an operation for appendicitis. While he was in hospital, the Conservatives withdrew from Lloyd George’s coalition government, precipitating the November 1922 general election, in which Churchill lost his Dundee seat.^[218] Later, Churchill wrote that he was “without an office, without a seat, without a party, and without an appendix”.^[219] Still, he could be satisfied with his elevation as one of 50 Companions of Honour, as named in Lloyd George’s 1922 Dissolution Honours list.^[220]

Out of Parliament: 1922–1924[edit source]

Main article: Winston Churchill’s Liberal Party years, 1904–1924 Churchill with children Randolph and Diana in 1923.

Churchill spent much of the next six months at the Villa Rêve d’Or near Cannes, where he devoted himself to painting and writing his memoirs.^[221] He wrote an autobiographical history of the war, The World Crisis. The first volume was published in April 1923 and the rest over the next ten years.^[218]

After the 1923 general election was called, seven Liberal associations asked Churchill to stand as their candidate, and he selected Leicester West, but he did not win the seat.^[222] A Labour government led by Ramsay MacDonald took power. Churchill had hoped they would be defeated by a Conservative-Liberal coalition.^[223] He strongly opposed the MacDonald government’s decision to loan money to Soviet Russia and feared the signing of an Anglo-Soviet Treaty.^[224]

On 19 March 1924, alienated by Liberal support for Labour, Churchill stood as an independent anti-socialist candidate in the Westminster Abbey by-election but was defeated.^[225] In May, he addressed a Conservative meeting in Liverpool and declared that there was no longer a place for the Liberal Party in British politics. He said that Liberals must back the Conservatives to stop Labour and ensure “the successful defeat of socialism”.^[226] In July, he agreed with Conservative leader Stanley Baldwin that he would be selected as a Conservative candidate in the next general election, which was held on 29 October. Churchill stood at Epping, but he described himself as a “Constitutionalist“.^[227] The Conservatives were victorious and Baldwin formed the new government. Although Churchill had no background in finance or economics, Baldwin appointed him as Chancellor of the Exchequer.^[228]

Chancellor of the Exchequer: 1924–1929[edit source]

Main article: Winston Churchill as Chancellor of the Exchequer Churchill on Budget Day with his wife Clementine and children Sarah and Randolph, 15 April 1929.

Becoming Chancellor on 6 November 1924, Churchill formally rejoined the Conservative Party.^[229] As Chancellor, he intended to pursue his free trade principles in the form of laissez-faire economics, as under the Liberal social reforms.^[229] In April 1925, he controversially albeit reluctantly restored the gold standard in his first budget at its 1914 parity against the advice of some leading economists including John Maynard Keynes.^[230] The return to gold is held to have caused deflation and resultant unemployment with a devastating impact on the coal industry.^[231] Churchill presented five budgets in all to April 1929. Among his measures were reduction of the state pension age from 70 to 65; immediate provision of widow’s pensions; reduction of military expenditure; income tax reductions and imposition of taxes on luxury items.^[232]

During the General Strike of 1926, Churchill edited the British Gazette, the government’s anti-strike propaganda newspaper.^[233] After the strike ended, he acted as an intermediary between striking miners and their employers. He later called for the introduction of a legally binding minimum wage.^[234] In early 1927, Churchill visited Rome where he met Mussolini, whom he praised for his stand against Leninism.^[235]

The “Wilderness Years”: 1929–1939[edit source]

Main article: Winston Churchill’s “Wilderness” years, 1929–1939

Marlborough and the India Question: 1929–1932[edit source]

Churchill meeting with film star Charlie Chaplin in Los Angeles in 1929.

In the 1929 general election, Churchill retained his Epping seat but the Conservatives were defeated and MacDonald formed his second Labour government.^[236] Out of office, Churchill was prone to depression (his “black dog”) as he sensed his political talents being wasted and time passing him by – in all such times, writing provided the antidote.^[237] He began work on Marlborough: His Life and Times, a four-volume biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough.^[238]^[239] It was by this time that he had developed a reputation for being a heavy drinker of alcoholic beverages, although Jenkins believes that was often exaggerated.^[240]

Hoping that the Labour government could be ousted, he gained Baldwin’s approval to work towards establishing a Conservative-Liberal coalition, although many Liberals were reluctant.^[238] In October 1930, after his return from a trip to North America, Churchill published his autobiography, My Early Life, which sold well and was translated into multiple languages.^[241]

In January 1931, Churchill resigned from the Conservative Shadow Cabinet because Baldwin supported the decision of the Labour government to grant Dominion status to India.^[242] Churchill believed that enhanced home rule status would hasten calls for full independence.^[243] He was particularly opposed to Mohandas Gandhi, whom he considered “a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir“.^[244] His views enraged Labour and Liberal opinion although he was supported by many grassroot Conservatives.^[245]

The October 1931 general election was a landslide victory for the Conservatives^[246] Churchill nearly doubled his majority in Epping, but he was not given a ministerial position.^[247] The Commons debated Dominion Status for India on 3 December and Churchill insisted on dividing the House, but this backfired as only 43 MPs supported him.^[248] He embarked on a lecture tour of North America, hoping to recoup financial losses sustained in the Wall Street Crash.^[246]^[248] On 13 December, he was crossing Fifth Avenue in New York City when he was knocked down by a car, suffering a head wound from which he developed neuritis.^[249] To further his convalescence, he and Clementine took ship to Nassau for three weeks but Churchill became depressed there about his financial and political losses.^[250] He returned to America in late January 1932 and completed most of his lectures before arriving home on 18 March.^[250]

Having worked on Marlborough for much of 1932, Churchill in late August decided to visit his ancestor’s battlefields.^[251] Staying at the Regina Hotel in Munich, he met Ernst Hanfstaengl, a friend of Hitler, who was then rising in prominence. Hanfstaengl tried to arrange a meeting between Churchill and Hitler, but Hitler was unenthusiastic, saying, “What on earth would I talk to him about?”^[252] After Churchill raised concerns about Hitler’s anti-Semitism, Hitler did not come to the hotel that day or the next.^[253]^[254] Hitler allegedly told Hanfstaengl that Churchill was not in office and was of no consequence.^[253] Soon after visiting Blenheim, Churchill was afflicted with paratyphoid fever and spent two weeks at a sanatorium in Salzburg.^[255] He returned to Chartwell on 25 September, still working on Marlborough. Two days later, he collapsed while walking in the grounds after a recurrence of paratyphoid which caused an ulcer to haemorrhage. He was taken to a London nursing home and remained there until late October.^[256]

Warnings about Germany and the abdication crisis: 1933–1936[edit source]

After Hitler came to power on 30 January 1933, Churchill was quick to recognise the menace of such a regime and expressed alarm that the British government had reduced air force spending and warned that Germany would soon overtake Britain in air force production.^[257]^[258] Armed with official data provided clandestinely by two senior civil servants, Desmond Morton and Ralph Wigram, Churchill was able to speak with authority about what was happening in Germany, especially the development of the Luftwaffe.^[259] He told the people of his concerns in a radio broadcast in November 1934,^[260] having earlier denounced the intolerance and militarism of Nazism in the House of Commons.^[261] While Churchill regarded Mussolini‘s regime as a bulwark against the perceived threat of communist revolution, he opposed the Italian invasion of Ethiopia,^[262] despite describing the country as a primitive, uncivilised nation.^[263] Writing about the Spanish Civil War, he referred to Franco‘s army as the “anti-red movement”, but later became critical of Franco.^[264] Two of his nephews, Esmond and Giles Romilly, fought as volunteers in the International Brigades in defence of the legitimate Republican government.^[265]

Between October 1933 and September 1938, the four volumes of Marlborough: His Life and Times were published and sold well.^[266] In December 1934, the India Bill entered Parliament and was passed in February 1935. Churchill and 83 other Conservative MPs voted against it.^[267] In June 1935, MacDonald resigned and was replaced as Prime Minister by Baldwin.^[262] Baldwin then led the Conservatives to victory in the 1935 general election; Churchill retained his seat with an increased majority but was again left out of the government.^[268]

In January 1936, Edward VIII succeeded his father, George V, as monarch. His desire to marry an American divorcee, Wallis Simpson, caused the abdication crisis.^[269] Churchill supported Edward and clashed with Baldwin on the issue.^[270] Afterwards, although Churchill immediately pledged loyalty to George VI, he wrote that the abdication was “premature and probably quite unnecessary”.^[271]

Anti-appeasement: 1937–1939[edit source]

Churchill and Neville Chamberlain, the chief proponent of appeasement.

In May 1937, Baldwin resigned and was succeeded as Prime Minister by Neville Chamberlain. At first, Churchill welcomed Chamberlain’s appointment but, in February 1938, matters came to a head after Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden resigned over Chamberlain’s appeasement of Mussolini,^[272] a policy which Chamberlain was extending towards Hitler.^[273]

In 1938, Churchill warned the government against appeasement and called for collective action to deter German aggression. In March, the Evening Standard ceased publication of his fortnightly articles, but the Daily Telegraph published them instead.^[274]^[275] Following the German annexation of Austria, Churchill spoke in the House of Commons, declaring that “the gravity of the events[…] cannot be exaggerated”.^[276] He began calling for a mutual defence pact among European states threatened by German expansionism, arguing that this was the only way to halt Hitler.^[277] This was to no avail as, in September, Germany mobilised to invade the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia.^[278] Churchill visited Chamberlain at Downing Street and urged him to tell Germany that Britain would declare war if the Germans invaded Czechoslovak territory; Chamberlain was not willing to do this.^[279] On 30 September, Chamberlain signed up to the Munich Agreement, agreeing to allow German annexation of the Sudetenland. Speaking in the House of Commons on 5 October, Churchill called the agreement “a total and unmitigated defeat“.^[280]^[281]^[282]

First Lord of the Admiralty: September 1939 to May 1940[edit source]

Main article: Winston Churchill in the Second World War

The Phoney War and the Norwegian Campaign[edit source]

On 3 September 1939, the day Britain declared war on Germany, Chamberlain reappointed Churchill as First Lord of the Admiralty and he joined Chamberlain’s war cabinet. Churchill later claimed that the Board of the Admiralty sent a signal to the Fleet: “Winston is back”.^[283] As First Lord, Churchill was one of the highest-profile ministers during the so-called “Phoney War“, when the only significant action by British forces was at sea. Churchill was ebullient after the Battle of the River Plate on 13 December 1939 and afterwards welcomed home the crews, congratulating them on “a brilliant sea fight” and saying that their actions in a cold, dark winter had “warmed the cockles of the British heart”.^[284] On 16 February 1940, Churchill personally ordered Captain Philip Vian of the destroyer HMS Cossack to board the German supply ship Altmark in Norwegian waters freeing 299 captured British merchant seamen who had been captured by the Admiral Graf Spee. These actions, supplemented by his speeches, considerably enhanced Churchill’s reputation.^[284]

He was concerned about German naval activity in the Baltic Sea and initially wanted to send a naval force there but this was soon changed to a plan, codenamed Operation Wilfred, to mine Norwegian waters and stop iron ore shipments from Narvik to Germany.^[285] There were disagreements about mining, both in the war cabinet and with the French government. As a result, Wilfred was delayed until 8 April 1940, the day before the German invasion of Norway was launched.^[286]

The Norway Debate and Chamberlain’s resignation[edit source]

Main article: Norway Debate Churchill with Lord Halifax in 1938

After the Allies failed to prevent the German occupation of Norway, the Commons held an open debate from 7 to 9 May on the government’s conduct of the war. This has come to be known as the Norway Debate and is renowned as one of the most significant events in parliamentary history.^[287] On the second day (Wednesday, 8 May), the Labour opposition called for a division which was in effect a vote of no confidence in Chamberlain’s government.^[288] There was considerable support for Churchill on both sides of the House but, as a member of the government, he was obliged to speak on its behalf. He was called upon to wind up the debate, which placed him in the difficult position of having to defend the government without damaging his own prestige.^[289] Although the government won the vote, its majority was drastically reduced amid calls for a national government to be formed.^[290]

In the early hours of 10 May, German forces invaded Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands as a prelude to their assault on France.^[291] Since the division vote, Chamberlain had been trying to form a coalition but Labour declared on the Friday afternoon that they would not serve under his leadership, although they would accept another Conservative. The only two candidates were Churchill and Lord Halifax, the Foreign Secretary. The matter had already been discussed at a meeting on the 9th between Chamberlain, Halifax, Churchill, and David Margesson, the government Chief Whip.^[291] Halifax admitted that he could not govern effectively as a member of the House of Lords and so Chamberlain advised the King to send for Churchill, who became Prime Minister.^[292] Churchill later wrote of feeling a profound sense of relief in that he now had authority over the whole scene. He believed himself to be walking with destiny and that his life so far had been “a preparation for this hour and for this trial”.^[293]^[294]^[295]

Prime Minister: 1940–1945[edit source]

Main article: First premiership of Winston ChurchillFor a chronological guide to this subject, see Timeline of the first premiership of Winston Churchill.Further information: Churchill war ministrySee also: Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II and British Empire in World War II

Dunkirk to Pearl Harbor: May 1940 to December 1941[edit source]

Churchill takes aim with a Sten sub-machine gun in June 1941. The man in the pin-striped suit and fedora to the right is his bodyguard, Walter H. Thompson.

War ministry created[edit source]

Main article: Churchill war ministry

In May, Churchill was still generally unpopular with many Conservatives and probably most of the Labour Party.^[296] Chamberlain remained Conservative Party leader until October when ill health forced his resignation. By that time, Churchill had won the doubters over and his succession as party leader was a formality.^[297]

He began his premiership by forming a five-man war cabinet which included Chamberlain as Lord President of the Council, Labour leader Clement Attlee as Lord Privy Seal (later as Deputy Prime Minister), Halifax as Foreign Secretary and Labour’s Arthur Greenwood as a minister without portfolio. In practice, these five were augmented by the service chiefs and ministers who attended the majority of meetings.^[298]^[299] The cabinet changed in size and membership as the war progressed, one of the key appointments being the leading trades unionist Ernest Bevin as Minister of Labour and National Service.^[300] In response to previous criticisms that there had been no clear single minister in charge of the prosecution of the war, Churchill created and took the additional position of Minister of Defence, making him the most powerful wartime Prime Minister in British history.^[301] He drafted outside experts into government to fulfil vital functions, especially on the Home Front. These included personal friends like Lord Beaverbrook and Frederick Lindemann, who became the government’s scientific advisor.^[302]

Resolve to fight on[edit source]

Main article: War cabinet crisis, May 1940

At the end of May, with the British Expeditionary Force in retreat to Dunkirk and the Fall of France seemingly imminent, Halifax proposed that the government should explore the possibility of a negotiated peace settlement using the still-neutral Mussolini as an intermediary. There were several high-level meetings from 26 to 28 May, including two with the French premier Paul Reynaud.^[303] Churchill’s resolve was to fight on, even if France capitulated, but his position remained precarious until Chamberlain resolved to support him. Churchill had the full support of the two Labour members but knew he could not survive as Prime Minister if both Chamberlain and Halifax were against him. In the end, by gaining the support of his outer cabinet, Churchill outmanoeuvred Halifax and won Chamberlain over.^[304] Churchill believed that the only option was to fight on and his use of rhetoric hardened public opinion against a peaceful resolution and prepared the British people for a long war – Jenkins says Churchill’s speeches were “an inspiration for the nation, and a catharsis for Churchill himself”.^[305]

Churchill succeeded as an orator despite being handicapped from childhood with a speech impediment. He had a lateral lisp and was unable to pronounce the letter s, verbalising it with a slur.^[306] He worked hard on his pronunciation by repeating phrases designed to cure his problem with the sibilant “s”. He was ultimately successful and was eventually able to say: “My impediment is no hindrance”. In time, he turned the impediment into an asset and could use it to great effect, as when he called Hitler a “Nar-zee” (rhymes with “khazi“; emphasis on the “z”), rather than a Nazi (“ts”).^[307]

His first speech as Prime Minister, delivered to the Commons on 13 May was the “blood, toil, tears and sweat” speech. It was little more than a short statement but, Jenkins says, “it included phrases which have reverberated down the decades”.^[308] Churchill made it plain to the nation that a long, hard road lay ahead and that victory was the final goal:^[309]^[310]

“I would say to the House… that I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat. We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. You ask, what is our policy? I will say: it is to wage war, by sea, land and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: it is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival.”

Operation Dynamo and the Battle of France[edit source]

Operation Dynamo, the evacuation of 338,226 Allied servicemen from Dunkirk, ended on Tuesday, 4 June when the French rearguard surrendered. The total was far in excess of expectations and it gave rise to a popular view that Dunkirk had been a miracle, and even a victory.^[311] Churchill himself referred to “a miracle of deliverance” in his “we shall fight on the beaches” speech to the Commons that afternoon, though he shortly reminded everyone that: “We must be very careful not to assign to this deliverance the attributes of a victory. Wars are not won by evacuations”. The speech ended on a note of defiance coupled with a clear appeal to the United States:^[312]^[313]

“We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this Island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until, in God’s good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old”.

Germany initiated Fall Rot the following day and Italy entered the war on the 10th.^[314] The Wehrmacht occupied Paris on the 14th and completed their conquest of France on 25 June.^[315] It was now inevitable that Hitler would attack and probably try to invade Great Britain. Faced with this, Churchill addressed the Commons on 18 June and delivered one of his most famous speeches, ending with this peroration:^[316]^[317]^[318]

“What General Weygand called the “Battle of France” is over. I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin. Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duty and so bear ourselves that if the British Commonwealth and Empire lasts for a thousand years, men will still say: “This was their finest hour””.

Churchill was determined to fight back and ordered the commencement of the Western Desert campaign on 11 June, an immediate response to the Italian declaration of war. This went well at first while the Italian army was the sole opposition and Operation Compass was a noted success. In early 1941, however, Mussolini requested German support and Hitler sent the Afrika Korps to Tripoli under the command of Generalleutnant Erwin Rommel, who arrived not long after Churchill had halted Compass so that he could reassign forces to Greece where the Balkans campaign was entering a critical phase.^[319]

In other initiatives through June and July 1940, Churchill ordered the formation of both the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and the Commandos. The SOE was ordered to promote and execute subversive activity in Nazi-occupied Europe while the Commandos were charged with raids on specific military targets there. Hugh Dalton, the Minister of Economic Warfare, took political responsibility for the SOE and recorded in his diary that Churchill told him: “And now go and set Europe ablaze”.^[320]

The Battle of Britain and the Blitz[edit source]

Churchill walks through the ruins of Coventry Cathedral with Alfred Robert Grindlay, 1941.

On 20 August 1940, at the height of the Battle of Britain, Churchill addressed the Commons to outline the war situation. In the middle of this speech, he made a statement that created a famous nickname for the RAF fighter pilots involved in the battle:^[321]^[322]

“The gratitude of every home in our Island, in our Empire, and indeed throughout the world, except in the abodes of the guilty, goes out to the British airmen who, undaunted by odds, unwearied in their constant challenge and mortal danger, are turning the tide of the World War by their prowess and by their devotion. Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few”.

The Luftwaffe altered its strategy from 7 September 1940 and began the Blitz, which was especially intensive through October and November. Churchill’s morale during the Blitz was generally high and he told his private secretary John Colville in November that he thought the threat of invasion was past.^[323] He was confident that Great Britain could hold its own, given the increase in output, but was realistic about its chances of actually winning the war without American intervention.^[324]

Lend-Lease[edit source]

In September 1940, the British and American governments concluded the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, by which fifty American destroyers were transferred to the Royal Navy in exchange for free US base rights in Bermuda, the Caribbean and Newfoundland. An added advantage for Britain was that its military assets in those bases could be redeployed elsewhere.^[325]

Churchill’s good relations with United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt helped secure vital food, oil and munitions via the North Atlantic shipping routes.^[326] It was for this reason that Churchill was relieved when Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940. Upon re-election, Roosevelt set about implementing a new method of providing necessities to Great Britain without the need for monetary payment. He persuaded Congress that repayment for this immensely costly service would take the form of defending the US. The policy was known as Lend-Lease and it was formally enacted on 11 March 1941.^[327]

Operation Barbarossa[edit source]

Churchill and Roosevelt seated on the quarterdeck of HMS Prince of Wales for a Sunday service during the Atlantic Conference, 10 August 1941

Hitler launched his invasion of the Soviet Union on Sunday, 22 June 1941. It was no surprise to Churchill, who had known since early April, from Enigma decrypts at Bletchley Park, that the attack was imminent. He had tried to warn General Secretary Joseph Stalin via the British ambassador to Moscow, Stafford Cripps, but to no avail as Stalin did not trust Churchill. The night before the attack, already intending an address to the nation, Churchill alluded to his hitherto anti-communist views by saying to Colville: “If Hitler invaded Hell, I would at least make a favourable reference to the Devil”.^[328]

Atlantic Charter[edit source]

In August 1941, Churchill made his first transatlantic crossing of the war on board HMS Prince of Wales and met Roosevelt in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. On 14 August, they issued the joint statement that has become known as the Atlantic Charter.^[329] This outlined the goals of both countries for the future of the world and it is seen as the inspiration for the 1942 Declaration by United Nations, itself the basis of the United Nations which was founded in June 1945.^[330]

Pearl Harbor to D-Day: December 1941 to June 1944[edit source]

Pearl Harbor and United States entry into the war[edit source]

On 7–8 December 1941, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was followed by their invasion of Malaya and, on the 8th, Churchill declared war on Japan. Three days later came the joint declaration of war by Germany and Italy against the United States.^[331] Churchill went to Washington later in the month to meet Roosevelt for the first Washington Conference (codename Arcadia). This was important for “Europe First“, the decision to prioritise victory in Europe over victory in the Pacific, taken by Roosevelt while Churchill was still in mid-Atlantic. The Americans agreed with Churchill that Hitler was the main enemy and that the defeat of Germany was key to Allied success.^[332] It was also agreed that the first joint Anglo-American strike would be Operation Torch, the invasion of French North Africa (i.e., Algeria and Morocco). Originally planned for the spring of 1942, it was finally launched in November 1942 when the crucial Second Battle of El Alamein was already underway.^[333]

On 26 December, Churchill addressed a joint meeting of the US Congress but, that night, he suffered a mild heart attack which was diagnosed by his physician, Sir Charles Wilson (later Lord Moran), as a coronary deficiency needing several weeks’ bed rest. Churchill insisted that he did not need bed rest and, two days later, journeyed on to Ottawa by train where he gave a speech to the Canadian Parliament that included the “some chicken, some neck” line in which he recalled French predictions in 1940 that “Britain alone would have her neck wrung like a chicken”.^[334] He arrived home in mid-January, having flown from Bermuda to Plymouth in an American flying boat, to find that there was a crisis of confidence in both his coalition government and himself personally,^[335] and he decided to face a vote of confidence in the Commons, which he won easily.^[336]

While he was away, the Eighth Army, having already relieved the Siege of Tobruk, had pursued Operation Crusader against Rommel’s forces in Libya, successfully driving them back to a defensive position at El Agheila in Cyrenaica. On 21 January 1942, however, Rommel launched a surprise counter-attack which drove the Allies back to Gazala.

Elsewhere, recent British success in the Battle of the Atlantic was compromised by the Kriegsmarine‘s introduction of its M4 4-rotor Enigma, whose signals could not be deciphered by Bletchley Park for nearly a year.^[337] In the Far East, the news was much worse with Japanese advances in all theatres, especially at sea and in Malaya. At a press conference in Washington, Churchill had to play down his increasing doubts about the security of Singapore.^[338]

Fall of Singapore, loss of Burma and the Bengal famine[edit source]

Churchill already had grave concerns about the fighting quality of British troops after the defeats in Norway, France, Greece and Crete.^[339] Following the fall of Singapore to the Japanese on 15 February 1942, he felt that his misgivings were confirmed and said: “(this is) the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British military history”.^[340] More bad news had come on 11 February as the Kriegsmarine pulled off its audacious “Channel Dash“, a massive blow to British naval prestige. The combined effect of these events was to sink Churchill’s morale to its lowest point of the whole war.^[339]

Meanwhile, the Japanese had occupied most of Burma by the end of April 1942. Counter-offensives were hampered by the monsoon season and by disordered conditions in Bengal and Bihar, as well as a severe cyclone which devastated the region in October 1942. A combination of factors, including the curtailment of essential rice imports from Burma, poor administration, wartime inflation and a series of large-scale natural disasters such as flooding and crop disease led to the Bengal famine of 1943,^[341] in which an estimated 2.1–3 million people died.^[342] From December 1942 onwards, food shortages had prompted senior officials in India to ask London for grain imports, although the colonial authorities failed to recognise the seriousness of the emerging famine and responded ineptly.^[343] Churchill’s government was criticised for refusing to approve more imports, a policy it ascribed to an acute wartime shortage of shipping.^[344] When the British realised the full extent of the famine in September 1943, Churchill ordered the transportation of 130,000 tons of Iraqi and Australian grain to Bengal and the war cabinet agreed to send 200,000 tons by the end of the year.^[345]^[346] During the last quarter of 1943, 100,000 tons of rice and 176,000 tons of wheat were imported, compared to averages of 55,000 tons of rice and 54,000 tons of wheat earlier in the year.^[347] In October, Churchill wrote to the newly appointed Viceroy of India, Lord Wavell, charging him with the responsibility of ending the famine.^[345] In February 1944, as preparation for Operation Overlord placed greater demands on Allied shipping, Churchill cabled Wavell saying: “I will certainly help you all I can, but you must not ask the impossible”.^[346] Grain shipment requests continued to be turned down by the government throughout 1944, and Wavell complained to Churchill in October that “the vital problems of India are being treated by His Majesty’s Government with neglect, even sometimes with hostility and contempt”.^[344]^[348] The relative impact of British policies on the death toll of the famine remains a matter of controversy among scholars.^[349]

International conferences in 1942[edit source]

Huge portraits of Churchill and Stalin, Brisbane, Australia, 31 October 1941

On 20 May 1942, the Soviet Foreign Affairs minister, Vyacheslav Molotov, arrived in London and stayed until the 28th before going on to Washington. The purpose of this visit was to sign a treaty of friendship but Molotov wanted it done on the basis of certain territorial concessions regarding Poland and the Baltic countries. Churchill and Eden worked for a compromise and eventually a twenty-year treaty was formalised but with the question of frontiers placed on hold. Molotov was also seeking a Second Front in Europe but all Churchill could do was confirm that preparations were in progress and make no promises on a date.^[350]

Churchill felt well pleased with these negotiations and said as much when he contacted Roosevelt on the 27th.^[351] The previous day, however, Rommel had launched his counter-offensive, Operation Venice, to begin the Battle of Gazala.^[351] The Allies were ultimately driven out of Libya and suffered a major defeat in the loss of Tobruk on 21 June. Churchill was with Roosevelt when the news of Tobruk reached him. He was shocked by the surrender of 35,000 troops which was, apart from Singapore, “the heaviest blow” he received in the war.^[352] The Axis advance was eventually halted at the First Battle of El Alamein in July and the Battle of Alam el Halfa in early September. Both sides were exhausted and in urgent need of reinforcements and supplies.^[353]

Churchill had returned to Washington on 17 June. He and Roosevelt agreed on the implementation of Operation Torch as the necessary precursor to an invasion of Europe. Roosevelt had appointed General Dwight D. Eisenhower as commanding officer of the European Theater of Operations, United States Army (ETOUSA). Having received the news from North Africa, Churchill obtained shipment from America to the Eighth Army of 300 Sherman tanks and 100 howitzers. He returned to Britain on 25 June and had to face another motion of no confidence, this time in his central direction of the war, but again he won easily.^[354]

In August, despite health concerns, Churchill visited the British forces in North Africa, raising morale in the process, en route to Moscow for his first meeting with Stalin. He was accompanied by Roosevelt’s special envoy Averell Harriman.^[355] He was in Moscow 12–16 August and had four lengthy meetings with Stalin. Although they got along quite well together on a personal level, there was little chance of any real progress given the state of the war with the Germans still advancing in all theatres. Stalin was desperate for the Allies to open the Second Front in Europe, as Churchill had discussed with Molotov in May, and the answer was the same.^[356]

Turn of the tide: El Alamein and Stalingrad[edit source]

While he was in Cairo in early August, Churchill decided to replace Field Marshal Auchinleck with Field Marshal Alexander as Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East Theatre. Command of the Eighth Army was given to General William Gott but he was shot down and killed while flying to Cairo, only three days later and General Montgomery replaced him. Churchill returned to Cairo from Moscow on 17 August and could see for himself that the Alexander/Montgomery combination was already having an effect. He returned to England on the 21st, nine days before Rommel launched his final offensive.^[357]

As 1942 drew to a close, the tide of war began to turn with Allied victory in the key battles of El Alamein and Stalingrad. Until November, the Allies had always been on the defensive, but from November, the Germans were. Churchill ordered the church bells to be rung throughout Great Britain for the first time since early 1940.^[357] On 10 November, knowing that El Alamein was a victory, he delivered one of his most memorable war speeches to the Lord Mayor’s Luncheon at the Mansion House in London, in response to the Allied victory at El Alamein: “This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning.”^[357]

International conferences in 1943[edit source]

Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill at the Tehran Conference in 1943.

In January 1943, Churchill met Roosevelt at the Casablanca Conference (codename Symbol), which lasted ten days. It was also attended by General Charles de Gaulle on behalf of the Free French Forces. Stalin had hoped to attend but declined because of the situation at Stalingrad. Although Churchill expressed doubts on the matter, the so-called Casablanca Declaration committed the Allies to securing “unconditional surrender” by the Axis powers.^[358]^[359] From Morocco, Churchill went to Cairo, Adana, Cyprus, Cairo again and Algiers for various purposes. He arrived home on 7 February having been out of the country for nearly a month. He addressed the Commons on the 11th and then became seriously ill with pneumonia the following day, necessitating more than one month of rest, recuperation and convalescence – for the latter, he moved to Chequers. He returned to work in London on 15 March.^[360]

Churchill made two transatlantic crossings during the year, meeting Roosevelt at both the third Washington Conference (codename Trident) in May and the first Quebec Conference (codename Quadrant) in August.^[361] In November, Churchill and Roosevelt met Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek at the Cairo Conference (codename Sextant).^[362]

The most important conference of the year was soon afterwards (28 November to 1 December) at Tehran (codename Eureka), where Churchill and Roosevelt met Stalin in the first of the “Big Three” meetings, preceding those at Yalta and Potsdam in 1945. Roosevelt and Stalin co-operated in persuading Churchill to commit to the opening of a second front in western Europe and it was also agreed that Germany would be divided after the war, but no firm decisions were made about how.^[363] On their way back from Tehran, Churchill and Roosevelt held a second Cairo conference with Turkish president Ismet Inönü, but were unable to gain any commitment from Turkey to join the Allies.^[364]

Churchill went from Cairo to Tunis, arriving on 10 December, initially as Eisenhower’s guest (soon afterwards, Eisenhower took over as Supreme Allied Commander of the new SHAEF just being created in London). While Churchill was in Tunis, he became seriously ill with atrial fibrillation and was forced to remain until after Christmas while a succession of specialists were drafted in to ensure his recovery. Clementine and Colville arrived to keep him company; Colville had just returned to Downing Street after more than two years in the RAF. On 27 December, the party went on to Marrakesh for convalescence. Feeling much better, Churchill flew to Gibraltar on 14 January 1944 and sailed home on the King George V. He was back in London on the morning of 18 January and surprised MPs by attending Prime Minister’s Questions in the Commons that afternoon. Since 12 January 1943, when he set off for the Casablanca Conference, Churchill had been abroad or seriously ill for 203 of the 371 days.^[365]

Invasions of Sicily and Italy[edit source]

Churchill in the Roman amphitheatre of ancient Carthage to address 3,000 British and American troops, June 1943

In the autumn of 1942, after Churchill’s meeting with Stalin in Moscow, he was approached by Eisenhower, commanding the North African Theater of Operations, United States Army (NATOUSA), and his aides on the subject of where the Western Allies should launch their first strike in Europe. According to General Mark Clark, who later commanded the United States Fifth Army in the Italian campaign, the Americans openly admitted that a cross-Channel operation in the near future was “utterly impossible”. As an alternative, Churchill recommended “slit(ting) the soft belly of the Mediterranean” and persuaded them to invade first Sicily and then Italy after they had defeated the Afrika Korps in North Africa. After the war, Clark still agreed that Churchill’s analysis was correct but he added that, when the Allies landed at Salerno, they found that Italy was “a tough old gut”.^[366]

The invasion of Sicily began on 9 July and was successfully completed by 17 August. Churchill was then all for driving straight up the Italian mainland with Rome as the main target, but the Americans wanted to withdraw several divisions to England in the build-up of forces for Operation Overlord, now scheduled for the spring of 1944. Churchill was still not keen on Overlord as he feared that an Anglo-American army in France might not be a match for the fighting efficiency of the Wehrmacht. He preferred peripheral operations, including a plan called Operation Jupiter for an invasion of northern Norway.^[367] Events in Sicily had an unexpected impact in Italy. King Victor Emmanuel sacked Mussolini on 25 July and appointed Marshal Badoglio as Prime Minister. Badoglio opened negotiations with the Allies which resulted in the Armistice of Cassibile on 3 September. In response, the Germans activated Operation Achse and took control of most of Italy.^[368] Although he still preferred Italy to Normandy as the Allies’ main route into the Third Reich, Churchill was deeply concerned about the strong German resistance at Salerno and, later, after the Allies successfully gained their bridgehead at Anzio but still failed to break the stalemate, he caustically said that instead of “hurling a wildcat onto the shore”, the Allied force had become a “stranded whale”.^[369] ^[370] The big obstacle was Monte Cassino and it was not until mid-May 1944 when it was finally overcome, enabling the Allies to at last advance on Rome, which was taken on 4 June.^[371]

Preparations for D-Day[edit source]

Churchill is greeted by a crowd in Québec City, Canada, 1943

The difficulties in Italy caused Churchill to have a change of heart and mind about Allied strategy to the extent that, when the Anzio stalemate developed soon after his return to England from North Africa, he threw himself into the planning of Overlord and set up an ongoing series of meetings with SHAEF and the British Chiefs of Staff over which he regularly presided. These were always attended by either Eisenhower or his chief of staff General Walter Bedell Smith. Churchill was especially taken by the Mulberry project but he was also keen to make the most of Allied air power which, by the beginning of 1944, had become overwhelming.^[371] Churchill never fully lost his apprehension about the invasion, however, and underwent great fluctuation of mood as D-Day approached. Jenkins says that he faced potential victory with much less buoyancy than when he defiantly faced the prospect of defeat four years earlier.^[372]

Need for post-war reform[edit source]

Churchill could not ignore the need for post-war reforms covering a broad sweep of areas such as agriculture, education, employment, health, housing and welfare. The Beveridge Report with its five “Giant Evils” was published in November 1942 and assumed great importance amid widespread popular acclaim.^[373] Even so, Churchill was not really interested because he was focused on winning the war and saw reform in terms of tidying up afterwards. His attitude was demonstrated in a Sunday evening radio broadcast on 26 March 1944. He was obliged to devote most of it to the subject of reform and showed a distinct lack of interest. In their respective diaries, Colville said Churchill had broadcast “indifferently” and Harold Nicolson said that, to many people, Churchill came across the air as “a worn and petulant old man”.^[374]

In the end, however, it was the population’s demand for reform that decided the 1945 general election. Labour was perceived as the party that would deliver Beveridge. Arthur Greenwood had initiated its preceding social insurance and allied services inquiry in June 1941. Attlee, Bevin and Labour’s other coalition ministers through the war were seen to be working towards reform and earned the trust of the electorate.^[375]^[376]

Defeat of Germany: June 1944 to May 1945[edit source]

Churchill’s crossing of the Rhine river in Germany, during Operation Plunder on 25 March 1945.

D-Day: Allied invasion of Normandy[edit source]

Churchill was determined to be actively involved in the Normandy invasion and hoped to cross the Channel on D-Day itself (6 June 1944) or at least on D-Day+1. His desire caused unnecessary consternation at SHAEF until he was effectively vetoed by the King who told Churchill that, as head of all three services, he (the King) ought to go too. Churchill expected an Allied death toll of 20,000 on D-Day but he was proven to be pessimistic because less than 8,000 died in the whole of June.^[377] He made his first visit to Normandy on 12 June to visit Montgomery, whose HQ was then about five miles inland. That evening, as he was returning to London, the first V-1 flying bombs were launched. In a longer visit to Normandy on 22–23 July, Churchill went to Cherbourg and Arromanches where he saw the Mulberry Harbour.^[378]

Quebec Conference, September 1944[edit source]

Churchill met Roosevelt at the Second Quebec Conference (codename Octagon) from 12 to 16 September 1944. Between themselves, they reached agreement on the Morgenthau Plan for the Allied occupation of Germany after the war, the intention of which was not only to demilitarise but also de-industrialise Germany. Eden strongly opposed it and was later able to persuade Churchill to disown it. US Secretary of State Cordell Hull also opposed it and convinced Roosevelt that it was infeasible.^[379]

Moscow Conference, October 1944[edit source]

At the fourth Moscow conference (codename Tolstoy) from 9 to 19 October 1944, Churchill and Eden met Stalin and Molotov. This conference has gained notoriety for the so-called “Percentages agreement” in which Churchill and Stalin effectively agreed the post-war fate of the Balkans.^[380] By that time, the Soviet armies were in Rumania and Bulgaria. Churchill suggested a scale of predominance throughout the whole region so as not to, as he put it, “get at cross-purposes in small ways”.^[381] He wrote down some suggested percentages of influence per country and gave it to Stalin who ticked it. The agreement was that Russia would have 90% control of Romania and 75% control of Bulgaria. The UK and the USA would have 90% control of Greece. Hungary and Yugoslavia would be 50% each.^[382] In 1958, five years after the account of this meeting was published (in Churchill’s The Second World War), Soviet authorities denied that Stalin had accepted such an “imperialist proposal”.^[380]

Yalta Conference, February 1945[edit source]

Main article: Yalta Conference Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945.

From 30 January to 2 February 1945, Churchill and Roosevelt met for their Malta Conference ahead of the second “Big Three” event at Yalta from 4 to 11 February.^[383] Yalta had massive implications for the post-war world. There were two predominant issues: the question of setting up the United Nations Organisation after the war, on which much progress was made; and the more vexed question of Poland’s post-war status, which Churchill saw as a test case for the future of Eastern Europe.^[384] Churchill faced some strong criticism for the Yalta agreement on Poland. For example, 27 Tory MPs voted against him when the matter was debated in the Commons at the end of the month. Jenkins, however, maintains that Churchill did as well as he could have done in very difficult circumstances, not least the fact that Roosevelt was seriously ill and could not provide Churchill with meaningful support.^[385]

Another outcome of Yalta was the so-called Operation Keelhaul. The Western Allies agreed to the forcible repatriation of all Soviet citizens in the Allied zones, including prisoners of war, to the Soviet Union and the policy was later extended to all Eastern European refugees, many of whom were anti-Communist. Keelhaul was implemented between 14 August 1946 and 9 May 1947.^[386]^[387]

Area bombing controversy[edit source]

Main article: Bombing of Dresden in World War II The destruction of Dresden, February 1945.

On the nights of 13–15 February 1945, some 1,200 British and US bombers attacked the German city of Dresden, which was crowded with wounded and refugees from the Eastern Front.^[388]^[389] The attacks were part of an area bombing campaign that was initiated by Churchill in January with the intention of shortening the war.^[390] Churchill came to regret the bombing because initial reports suggested an excessive number of civilian casualties close to the end of the war, though an independent commission in 2010 confirmed a death toll between 22,700 and 25,000.^[391] On 28 March, he decided to restrict area bombing^[392] and sent a memorandum to General Ismay for the Chiefs of Staff Committee:^[393]^[394]

“The destruction of Dresden remains a serious query against the conduct of Allied bombing….. I feel the need for more precise concentration upon military objectives….. rather than on mere acts of terror and wanton destruction, however impressive”.

British historian Frederick Taylor has pointed out that the number of Soviet citizens who died from German bombing was roughly equivalent to the number of German citizens who died from Allied raids.^[395] Jenkins asks if Churchill was moved more by foreboding than by regret but admits it is easy to criticise with the hindsight of victory. He adds that the area bombing campaign was no more reprehensible than President Truman‘s use of the second atomic bomb on Nagasaki six months later.^[392] Andrew Marr, quoting Max Hastings, says that Churchill’s memorandum was a “calculated political attempt….. to distance himself….. from the rising controversy surrounding the area offensive”.^[394]

VE Day[edit source]

Churchill waving the Victory sign to the crowd in Whitehall on the day he broadcast to the nation that the war with Germany had been won, 8 May 1945. Ernest Bevin stands to his right.

On 7 May 1945 at the SHAEF headquarters in Reims the Allies accepted Germany’s surrender. The next day was Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) when Churchill broadcast to the nation that Germany had surrendered and that a final ceasefire on all fronts in Europe would come into effect at one minute past midnight that night (i.e., on the 9th).^[396] Afterwards, Churchill went to Buckingham Palace where he appeared on the balcony with the Royal Family before a huge crowd of celebrating citizens. He went from the palace to Whitehall where he addressed another large crowd: “God bless you all. This is your victory. In our long history, we have never seen a greater day than this. Everyone, man or woman, has done their best.”^[397]

At this point he asked Ernest Bevin to come forward and share the applause. Bevin said: “No, Winston, this is your day”, and proceeded to conduct the people in the singing of For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow.^[397] In the evening, Churchill made another broadcast to the nation asserting that the defeat of Japan would follow in the coming months (the Japanese surrendered on 15 August 1945).^[398]

Caretaker government: May 1945 to July 1945[edit source]

Main article: Churchill caretaker ministry

With a general election looming (there had been none for almost a decade), and with the Labour ministers refusing to continue the wartime coalition, Churchill resigned as Prime Minister on 23 May 1945. Later that day, he accepted the King’s invitation to form a new government, known officially as the National Government, like the Conservative-dominated coalition of the 1930s, but sometimes called the caretaker ministry. It contained Conservatives, National Liberals and a few non-party figures such as Sir John Anderson and Lord Woolton, but not Labour or Archibald Sinclair‘s Official Liberals. Although Churchill continued to carry out the functions of Prime Minister, including exchanging messages with the US administration about the upcoming Potsdam Conference, he was not formally reappointed until 28 May.^[399]^[400]

Potsdam Conference[edit source]

Main article: Potsdam Conference Churchill at the Potsdam Conference, July 1945.

Churchill was Great Britain’s representative at the post-war Potsdam Conference when it opened on 17 July and was accompanied at its sessions not only by Eden as Foreign Secretary but also, pending the result of the July general election, by Attlee. They attended nine sessions in nine days before returning to England for their election counts. After the landslide Labour victory, Attlee returned with Bevin as the new Foreign Secretary and there were a further five days of discussion.^[401] Potsdam went badly for Churchill. Eden later described his performance as “appalling”, saying that he was unprepared and verbose. Churchill upset the Chinese, exasperated the Americans and was easily led by Stalin, whom he was supposed to be resisting.^[402]

General election, July 1945[edit source]

Main article: 1945 United Kingdom general election

Churchill mishandled the election campaign by resorting to party politics and trying to denigrate Labour.^[403] On 4 June, he committed a serious political gaffe by saying in a radio broadcast that a Labour government would require “some form of Gestapo” to enforce its agenda.^[404]^[405] It backfired badly and Attlee made political capital by saying in his reply broadcast next day: “The voice we heard last night was that of Mr Churchill, but the mind was that of Lord Beaverbrook”. Jenkins says that this broadcast was “the making of Attlee”.^[406]

Although polling day was 5 July, the results of the election did not become known until 26 July, owing to the need to collect the votes of those serving overseas. Clementine and daughter Mary had been at the count in Woodford, Churchill’s new constituency in Essex, and had returned to Downing Street to meet him for lunch. Churchill was unopposed by the major parties in Woodford, but his majority over a sole independent candidate was much less than expected. He now anticipated defeat by Labour and Mary later described the lunch as “an occasion of Stygian gloom”.^[407]^[408] To Clementine’s suggestion that election defeat might be “a blessing in disguise”, Churchill retorted: “At the moment it seems very effectively disguised”.^[407]

That afternoon Churchill’s doctor Lord Moran (so he later recorded in his book The Struggle for Survival) commiserated with him on the “ingratitude” of the British public, to which Churchill replied: “I wouldn’t call it that. They have had a very hard time”.^[408] Having lost the election, despite enjoying much personal support amongst the British population, he resigned as Prime Minister that evening and was succeeded by Attlee who formed the first majority Labour government.^[409]^[410]^[411]^[412] Many reasons have been given for Churchill’s defeat, key among them being that a desire for post-war reform was widespread amongst the population and that the man who had led Britain in war was not seen as the man to lead the nation in peace.^[413]^[414] Although the Conservative Party was unpopular, many electors appear to have wanted Churchill to continue as Prime Minister whatever the outcome, or to have wrongly believed that this would be possible.^[415]

Leader of the Opposition: 1945–1951[edit source]

Main article: Later life of Winston Churchill

“Iron Curtain” speech[edit source]

Churchill in 1949.

Churchill continued to lead the Conservative Party and, for six years, served as Leader of the Opposition. In 1946, he was in America for nearly three months from early January to late March.^[416] It was on this trip that he gave his “Iron Curtain” speech about the USSR and its creation of the Eastern Bloc.^[417] Speaking on 5 March 1946 in the company of President Truman at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, Churchill declared:^[418]

“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere”.

The essence of his view was that, though the Soviet Union did not want war with the western Allies, its entrenched position in Eastern Europe had made it impossible for the three great powers to provide the world with a “triangular leadership”. Churchill’s desire was much closer collaboration between Britain and America. Within the same speech, he called for “a special relationship between the British Commonwealth and Empire and the United States”,^[418] but he emphasised the need for co-operation within the framework of the United Nations Charter.^[419]

Politics[edit source]

Churchill was an early proponent of pan-Europeanism, having called for a “United States of Europe” in a 1930 article. He supported the creations of the Council of Europe in 1949 and the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, but his support was always with the firm proviso that Britain must not actually join any federal grouping.^[420]^[421]^[422]

Having lived in Ireland as a child, Churchill always opposed its partition. As a minister in 1913 and again in 1921, he suggested that Ulster should be part of a united Ireland, but with a degree of autonomy from an independent Irish government. He was always opposed on this by Ulster Unionists.^[423] While he was Leader of the Opposition, he told John W. Dulanty and Frederick Boland, successive Irish ambassadors to London, that he still hoped for reunification.^[424]

Labour won the 1950 general election, but with a much-reduced majority. Churchill continued to serve as Leader of the Opposition.^[425]

Prime Minister: 1951–1955[edit source]

Main article: Second premiership of Winston ChurchillFurther information: Third Churchill ministry

Election result and cabinet appointments[edit source]

Churchill with Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Charles and Princess Anne, 10 February 1953.

Despite losing the popular vote to Labour, the Conservatives won an overall majority of 17 seats in the October 1951 general election and Churchill again became Prime Minister, remaining in office until his resignation on 5 April 1955.^[426] Eden, his eventual successor, was restored to Foreign Affairs, the portfolio with which Churchill was preoccupied throughout his tenure.^[427] Future Prime Minister Harold Macmillan was appointed Minister of Housing and Local Government with a manifesto commitment to build 300,000 new houses per annum, Churchill’s only real domestic concern. He achieved the target and, in October 1954, was promoted to Minister of Defence.^[428]

Health issues to eventual resignation[edit source]

Churchill was nearly 77 when he took office and was not in good health following several minor strokes.^[429] By December, George VI had become concerned about Churchill’s decline and intended asking him to stand down in favour of Eden, but the King had his own serious health issues and died on 6 February without making the request.^[430] Churchill developed a close friendship with Elizabeth II. It was widely expected that he would retire after her Coronation in May 1953 but, after Eden became seriously ill, Churchill increased his own responsibilities by taking over at the Foreign Office.^[431]^[432]^[433] Eden was incapacitated until the end of the year and was never completely well again.^[434]

On the evening of 23 June 1953, Churchill suffered a serious stroke and became partially paralysed down one side. Had Eden been well, Churchill’s premiership would most likely have been over. The matter was kept secret and Churchill went home to Chartwell to recuperate. He had fully recovered by November.^[435]^[436]^[437] He retired as Prime Minister in April 1955 and was succeeded by Eden.^[438]

Foreign affairs[edit source]

Churchill with Anthony Eden, Dean Acheson and Harry Truman, 5 January 1952.

Churchill feared a global conflagration and firmly believed that the only way to preserve peace and freedom was to build on a solid foundation of friendship and co-operation between Britain and America. He made four official transatlantic visits from January 1952 to July 1954.^[439]

He enjoyed a good relationship with Truman but difficulties arose over the planned European Defence Community (EDC), by which Truman hoped to reduce America’s military presence in West Germany; Churchill was sceptical about the EDC.^[440] Churchill wanted US military support of British interests in Egypt and the Middle East, but that was refused. While Truman expected British military involvement in Korea, he viewed any US commitment to the Middle East as maintaining British imperialism.^[441] The Americans recognised that the British Empire was in terminal decline and had welcomed the Attlee government’s policy of decolonisation. Churchill, always the imperialist, believed that Britain’s position as a world power depended on the empire’s continued existence.^[442]

Churchill had been obliged to recognise Colonel Nasser‘s revolutionary government of Egypt, which took power in 1952. Much to Churchill’s private dismay, agreement was reached in October 1954 on the phased evacuation of British troops from their Suez base. In addition, Britain agreed to terminate its rule in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan by 1956, though this was in return for Nasser’s abandonment of Egyptian claims over the region.^[443] Elsewhere, the Malayan Emergency, a guerrilla war fought by Communist fighters against Commonwealth forces, had begun in 1948 and continued past Malayan independence (1957) until 1960. Churchill’s government maintained the military response to the crisis and adopted a similar strategy for the Mau Mau Uprising in British Kenya (1952–1960).^[444]

Churchill was uneasy about the election of Eisenhower as Truman’s successor. After Stalin died on 5 March 1953, Churchill sought a summit meeting with the Soviets but Eisenhower refused out of fear that the Soviets would use it for propaganda.^[445]^[431]^[446] By July of that year, Churchill was deeply regretting that the Democrats had not been returned. He told Colville that Eisenhower as president was “both weak and stupid”. Churchill believed that Eisenhower did not fully comprehend the danger posed by the H-bomb and he greatly distrusted Eisenhower’s Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles.^[447] Churchill met Eisenhower to no avail at the Three-Powers (French Prime Minister Joseph Laniel being the third participant) Bermuda Conference in December 1953^[448]^[449] (with Churchill as the host, as the conference was on British territory) and in June/July 1954 at the White House.^[450] In the end, it was the Soviets who proposed a four-power summit, but it did not meet until 18 July 1955, three months after Churchill had retired.^[451]^[452]

Later life: 1955–1965[edit source]

Main article: Later life of Winston Churchill

Retirement: 1955–1964[edit source]

Elizabeth II offered to create Churchill Duke of London, but this was declined as a result of the objections of his son Randolph, who would have inherited the title on his father’s death.^[453] He did, however, accept the Order of the Garter to become Sir Winston. Although publicly supportive, Churchill was privately scathing about Eden’s handling of the Suez Crisis and Clementine believed that many of his visits to the United States in the following years were attempts to help repair Anglo-American relations.^[454] After leaving the premiership, Churchill remained an MP until he stood down at the 1964 general election.^[455] Apart from 1922 to 1924, he had been an MP since October 1900 and had represented five constituencies.^[456]

By the time of the 1959 general election, however, he seldom attended the House of Commons. Despite the Conservative landslide in 1959, his own majority in Woodford fell by more than a thousand. He spent most of his retirement at Chartwell or at his London home in Hyde Park Gate, and became a habitué of high society at La Pausa on the French Riviera.^[457]

In June 1962, when he was 87, Churchill had a fall in Monte Carlo and broke his hip. He was flown home to a London hospital where he remained for three weeks. Jenkins says that Churchill was never the same after this accident and his last two years were something of a twilight period.^[455] In 1963, US President John F. Kennedy, acting under authorisation granted by an Act of Congress, proclaimed him an honorary citizen of the United States, but he was unable to attend the White House ceremony.^[455] There has been speculation that he became very depressed in his final years but this has been emphatically denied by his personal secretary Anthony Montague Browne, who was with him for his last ten years. Montague Browne wrote that he never heard Churchill refer to depression and certainly did not suffer from it.^[458]

Death, funeral and memorials[edit source]

Main article: Death and state funeral of Winston Churchill Churchill’s grave at St Martin’s Church, Bladon.

Churchill suffered his final stroke on 12 January 1965 and died 12 days later, (24 January 1965), which was the seventieth anniversary of his father’s death.^[455]^[459] Like the Duke of Wellington in 1852 and William Gladstone in 1898, Churchill was given a state funeral.^[455] Planning for this had begun in 1953 under the code-name of “Operation Hope Not” and a detailed plan had been produced by 1958.^[460] His coffin lay in state at Westminster Hall for three days and the funeral ceremony was at St Paul’s Cathedral on 30 January.^[455]^[459] Afterwards, the coffin was taken by boat along the River Thames to Waterloo Station and from there by a special train to the family plot at St Martin’s Church, Bladon, near his birthplace at Blenheim Palace.^[461]^[459]

Worldwide, numerous memorials have been dedicated to Churchill. His statue in Parliament Square was unveiled by his widow Clementine in 1973 and is one of only twelve in the square, all of prominent political figures, including Churchill’s friend Lloyd George and his India policy nemesis Gandhi.^[462]^[463] Elsewhere in London, the wartime Cabinet War Rooms have been renamed the Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms.^[464] Churchill College, Cambridge, was established as a national memorial to Churchill. An indication of Churchill’s high esteem in the UK is the result of the 2002 BBC poll, attracting 447,423 votes, in which he was voted the greatest Briton of all time, his nearest rival being Isambard Kingdom Brunel some 56,000 votes behind.^[465]

He is one of only eight people to be granted honorary citizenship of the United States; others include Lafayette, Raoul Wallenberg and Mother Teresa.^[466] The United States Navy honoured him in 1999 by naming a new Arleigh Burke-class destroyer as the USS Winston S. Churchill.^[467] Other memorials in North America include the National Churchill Museum in Fulton, Missouri, where he made the 1946 “Iron Curtain” speech; Churchill Square in central Edmonton, Alberta; and the Winston Churchill Range, a mountain range northwest of Lake Louise, also in Alberta, which was renamed after Churchill in 1956.^[468]

Artist, historian, and writer[edit source]

Main articles: Winston Churchill as historian, Winston Churchill as painter, and Winston Churchill as writer Allies (1995) by Lawrence Holofcener, a sculptural group depicting Franklin D. Roosevelt and Churchill in New Bond Street, London.

Churchill was a prolific writer. He used either “Winston S. Churchill” or “Winston Spencer Churchill” as his pen name to avoid confusion with the American novelist of the same name, with whom he struck up a friendly correspondence.^[469] His writing has a signature style that consists of “short, Anglo-Saxon, and Shakespearean words.” ^[470] His prose was marked with lucid and bold exposition along with a more playful and demotic usage of language, like Kipling, to make a point while adopting Augustan Grand Manner of writing that included writers like Gibbon, Johnson, Burke, and Macaulay.^[471] His output included a novel, two biographies, three volumes of memoirs, several histories, and numerous press articles. Two of his most famous works, published after his first premiership brought his international fame to new heights, were his twelve-volume memoir, The Second World War, and the four-volume A History of the English-Speaking Peoples.^[472] For many years, he relied heavily upon his press articles to assuage his financial worries: in 1937, for example, he wrote 64 published articles and some of his contracts were quite lucrative.^[473] In recognition of his “mastery of historical and biographical description” and oratorial output, Churchill received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953.^[474]

As well as writing, Churchill became an accomplished amateur artist after his resignation from the Admiralty in 1915.^[475] Using the pseudonym “Charles Morin”,^[476] he continued this hobby throughout his life and completed hundreds of paintings, many of which are on show in the studio at Chartwell as well as in private collections.^[477]

Churchill was an amateur bricklayer, constructing buildings and garden walls at Chartwell.^[476] To further this hobby, he joined the Amalgamated Union of Building Trade Workers but was expelled after he revived his membership of the Conservative Party.^[476] He also bred butterflies at Chartwell, keeping them in a converted summerhouse each year until the weather was right for their release.^[478] He was well known for his love of animals and always had several pets, mainly cats but also dogs, pigs, lambs, bantams, goats and fox cubs among others.^[479] Churchill has often been quoted as saying that “cats look down on us and dogs look up to us, but pigs treat us as equals”, or words to that effect, but the International Churchill Society believe he has mostly been misquoted.^[480]

Legacy[edit source]

Main articles: Winston Churchill’s political ideology and Honours of Winston Churchill

“A man of destiny”[edit source]

The statue of Churchill (1973) by Ivor Roberts-Jones in Parliament Square, London

Roy Jenkins concludes his biography of Churchill by comparing him with W. E. Gladstone, whom Jenkins recognised as “undoubtedly” the greatest prime minister of the 19th century. When he began his biography, Jenkins regarded Gladstone as the greater man but changed his mind in the course of writing. He concluded his work by ranking Churchill:^[461]

“…..with all his idiosyncracies, his indulgences, his occasional childishness, but also his genius, his tenacity and his persistent ability (to be) larger than life, as the greatest ever (occupant of) 10 Downing Street”.

Churchill always self-confidently believed himself to be “a man of destiny”.^[481] Because of this, he lacked restraint and could be reckless.^[482]^[483] His self-belief manifested itself in terms of his “affinity with war” of which, according to Sebastian Haffner, he exhibited “a profound and innate understanding”.^[484] Churchill considered himself a military genius but that made him vulnerable to failure and Paul Addison says Gallipoli was “the greatest blow his self-image was ever to sustain”.^[485] Jenkins points out, however, that although Churchill was excited and exhilarated by war, he was never indifferent to the suffering it causes.^[486]

Political ideology[edit source]

As a politician, Churchill was perceived by some observers to have been largely motivated by personal ambition rather than political principle.^[487]^[488] During his early parliamentary career, he was often deliberately provocative and argumentative to an unusual degree;^[489] and his barbed rhetorical style earned him many enemies in parliament.^[490]^[491] On the other hand, he was deemed to be an honest politician who displayed particular loyalty to his family and close friends.^[492] He was, according to Jenkins, “singularly lacking in inhibition or concealment”.^[493] Robert Rhodes James said he “lacked any capacity for intrigue and was refreshingly innocent and straightforward”.^[494]

Until the outbreak of the Second World War, Churchill’s approach to politics generated widespread “mistrust and dislike”,^[495] largely on account of his two party defections.^[496] His biographers have variously categorised him, in terms of political ideology, as “fundamentally conservative”,^[497] “(always) liberal in outlook”,^[498] and “never circumscribed by party affiliation”.^[499] Jenkins says that Churchill’s self-belief was “far stronger than any class or tribal loyalty”.^[481] Whether Churchill was a conservative or a liberal, he was nearly always opposed to socialism because of its propensity for state planning and his belief in free markets. The exception was during his wartime coalition when he was completely reliant upon the support of his Labour colleagues.^[500]^[501] Although the Labour leaders were willing to join his coalition, Churchill had long been regarded as an enemy of the working class. His response to the Rhondda Valley unrest and his anti-socialist rhetoric brought condemnation from socialists. They saw him as a reactionary who represented imperialism, militarism, and the interests of the upper classes in the class war.^[502] His role in opposing the General Strike earned the enmity of many strikers and most members of the Labour movement.^[503] Paradoxically, Churchill was supportive of trade unionism, which he saw as the “antithesis of socialism”.^[504]

On the other hand, his detractors did not take Churchill’s domestic reforms into account,^[505] for he was in many respects a radical and a reformer,^[506] but always with the intention of preserving the existing social structure, never of challenging it.^[507] He could not empathise with the poor, so he sympathised with them instead,^[508] displaying what Addison calls the attitude of a “benevolent paternalist”.^[509] Jenkins, himself a senior Labour minister, remarked that Churchill had “a substantial record as a social reformer” for his work in the early years of his ministerial career.^[508] Similarly, Rhodes James thought that, as a social reformer, Churchill’s achievements were “considerable”.^[510] This, said Rhodes James, had been achieved because Churchill as a minister had “three outstanding qualities. He worked hard; he put his proposals efficiently through the Cabinet and Parliament; he carried his Department with him. These ministerial merits are not as common as might be thought”.^[511]

Imperialism and racial views[edit source]

See also: Racial views of Winston Churchill The British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921.

Assessments of Churchill’s legacy are largely based on his leadership of the British people in the Second World War. Even so, his personal views on empire and race continue to stir intense debate. Whatever his political or reformist attitude at any time, Churchill was always staunchly an imperialist and a monarchist. He consistently exhibited a “romanticised view” of both the British Empire and the reigning monarch, especially of Elizabeth II during his last term as premier.^[512]^[513]^[514]

He has been described as a “liberal imperialist”^[515] who saw British imperialism as a form of altruism that benefited its subject peoples because “by conquering and dominating other peoples, the British were also elevating and protecting them”.^[516] Martin Gilbert asserted that Churchill held a hierarchical perspective of race, seeing racial characteristics as signs of the maturity of a society.^[517] Churchill’s views on race were driven by his imperialist mindset and outlook. He advocated against black or indigenous self-rule in Africa, Australia, the Caribbean, the Americas and India, believing that the British Empire promoted and maintained the welfare of those who lived in the colonies; he insisted that “our responsibility to the native races remains a real one”.^[345] In 1906, Churchill stated that “We will endeavour … to advance the principle of equal rights of civilized men irrespective of colour.”^[518] According to Addison, Churchill was opposed to immigration from the Commonwealth^[519] but, against that, Addison argues that it is misleading to describe Churchill as a racist in any modern context because the term as used now bears “many connotations which were alien to Churchill”.^[520]

Addison makes the point that Churchill opposed anti-Semitism (as in 1904, when he was fiercely critical of the proposed Aliens Bill) and argues that he would never have tried “to stoke up racial animosity against immigrants, or to persecute minorities”.^[520] However, in “Zionism verus Bolshevism”, an article written by Churchill in the Illustrated Sunday Herald in 1920, he made a distinction between “national” Jews – who Churchill said supported Zionism – and “international” Jews – such as Adam Weishaupt,^[b] Karl Marx, Trotsky, Béla Kun, Rosa Luxemburg and Emma Goldman, who Churchill said supported a Bolshevist “world-wide conspiracy for the overthrow of civilisation and for the reconstitution of society on the basis of arrested development, of envious malevolence, and impossible equality”.^[521] Although an anti-Semitic belief in an international Jewish conspiracy was not unique among British politicians of the time, few had the stature of Churchill.^[522] The article was criticised by the Jewish Chronicle at the time, calling it “the most reckless and scandalous campaign in which even the most discredited politicians have ever engaged”.^[523] The Chronicle said Churchill had adopted “the hoary tactics of hooligan anti-Semites” in his article.^[523]

Cultural depictions[edit source]

Main article: Cultural depictions of Winston Churchill

While the biographies by Addison, Gilbert, Jenkins and Rhodes James are among the most acclaimed works about Churchill, he has been the subject of numerous others. Writing in 2012–13 for the International Churchill Society, Professor David Freeman counted 62 in total, excluding non-English books, to the end of the 20th century.^[524]

At a public ceremony in Westminster Hall on 30 November 1954, Churchill’s 80th birthday, the joint Houses of Parliament presented him with a full-length portrait of himself painted by Graham Sutherland.^[525] Churchill and Clementine reportedly hated it and, later, she had it destroyed.^[526]^[527]

Churchill has been widely depicted on stage and screen. Notable screen biopics include Young Winston (1972), directed by Richard Attenborough and starring Simon Ward; Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years (1981), starring Robert Hardy and with Martin Gilbert as co-writer; The Gathering Storm (2002), starring Albert Finney and Vanessa Redgrave; Darkest Hour (2017), starring Gary Oldman. John Lithgow played Churchill in The Crown (2016–2019). Finney, Oldman and Lithgow have all won major awards for their performances as Churchill.^[528]^[529]^[530]

Family and ancestry[edit source]

Marriage and children[edit source]

Further information: Descendants of Winston Churchill

Churchill married Clementine Hozier in September 1908.^[531] They remained married for 57 years.^[107] Churchill was aware of the strain that his political career placed on his marriage,^[532] and, according to Colville, he had a brief affair in the 1930s with Doris Castlerosse,^[533] although this is discounted by Andrew Roberts.^[534]

The Churchills’ first child, Diana, was born in July 1909;^[535] the second, Randolph, in May 1911.^[146] Their third, Sarah, was born in October 1914,^[168] and their fourth, Marigold, in November 1918.^[196] Marigold died in August 1921, from sepsis of the throat^[536] and was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery.^[537] On 15 September 1922, the Churchills’ last child, Mary, was born. Later that month, the Churchills bought Chartwell, which would be their home until Winston’s death in 1965.^[538] According to Jenkins, Churchill was an “enthusiastic and loving father” but one who expected too much of his children.^[539]

Ancestry[edit source]

hideAncestors of Winston Churchill^[540]
8. George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough4. John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough9. Lady Jane Stewart2. Lord Randolph Churchill10. Charles Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry5. Lady Frances Anne Vane11. Frances Anne Vane-Tempest1. Winston Churchill12. Isaac Jerome6. Leonard Jerome13. Aurora Murray3. Jennie Jerome14. Ambrose Hall7. Clarissa Hall15. Clarissa Willcox

Notes[edit source]

^ The surname is the double-barrelled Spencer Churchill (unhyphenated), but he is known by the surname Churchill. His father dropped the Spencer.^[1]
^ Weishaupt was the founder of the Illuminati. He is not Jewish, although many anti-Semites have linked him to various conspiracy theories regarding international Jewish control.

References[edit source]

Citations[edit source]

^ Price, Bill (2009). Winston Churchill: War Leader. Harpenden: No Exit Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-18-42433-22-5.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 5.
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^ “Were “Soft Underbelly” and “Fortress Europe” Churchill Phrases?”. The Churchill Project. Hillsdale College. 1 April 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 713–714.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 713.
^ Tompkins, Peter (1985). “What Really Happened at Anzio”. Il Politico. 50 (3): 509–528. ISSN 0032-325X. JSTOR 43099608.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 720, 729.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Jenkins 2001, p. 730.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 737.
^ Abel-Smith, Brian (January 1992). “The Beveridge report: Its origins and outcomes”. International Social Security Review. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. 45 (1–2): 5–16. doi:10.1111/j.1468-246X.1992.tb00900.x.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 733.
^ Lynch, Michael (2008). “1. The Labour Party in Power, 1945–1951”. Britain 1945–2007. Access to History. London: Hodder Headline. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-03-40965-95-5.
^ Marr, Andrew (2008). A History of Modern Britain. London: Macmillan. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-03-30439-83-1.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 744–745.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 746.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 754.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Resis, Albert (April 1978). “The Churchill-Stalin Secret “Percentages” Agreement on the Balkans, Moscow, October 1944″. The American Historical Review. 83 (2): 368–387. doi:10.2307/1862322. JSTOR 1862322.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 759.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 760.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 773.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 778–779.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 779.
^ Tolstoy, Nikolai (1978). The Secret Betrayal. New York City: Scribner. p. 360. ISBN 978-06-84156-35-4.
^ Hummel, Jeffrey Rogers (1 November 1974). “Operation Keelhaul—Exposed”. San Jose State University ScholarWorks: 4–9. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 777–778.
^ Taylor 2005, pp. 262–264.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 777.
^ “Up to 25,000 died in Dresden’s WWII bombing”. BBC News. London: BBC. 18 March 2010. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Jenkins 2001, p. 778.
^ Taylor 2005, pp. 430–431.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Marr, Andrew (2009). The Making of Modern Britain. London: Macmillan. pp. 423–424. ISBN 978-03-30510-99-8.
^ Hawley, Charles (11 February 2005). “Dresden Bombing Is To Be Regretted Enormously”. Der Spiegel. Hamburg: Spiegel-Verlag. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
^ Hermiston 2016, pp. 353–354.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Hermiston 2016, p. 355.
^ Hermiston 2016, p. 356.
^ Hermiston 2016, p. 360.
^ Gilbert 1988, pp. 22–23, 27.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 795–796.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 796.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 791–795.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 792.
^ Addison, Paul (17 February 2011). “Why Churchill Lost in 1945”. BBC History. London: BBC. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 793.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Jenkins 2001, p. 798.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Gilbert 1988, p. 108.
^ Gilbert 1988, pp. 57, 107–109.
^ Gilbert 1991, p. 855.
^ Hermiston 2016, pp. 366–367.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 798–799.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 789–794.
^ Pelling, Henry (June 1980). “The 1945 General Election Reconsidered”. The Historical Journal. Cambridge University Press. 23 (2): 399–414. doi:10.1017/S0018246X0002433X. JSTOR 2638675.
^ Gilbert 1988, p. 113.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 807.
^ Harriman, Pamela (December 1987). “The True Meaning of the Iron Curtain Speech”. International Churchill Society (ICS). London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “The Sinews of Peace (the “Iron Curtain” speech)”. International Churchill Society (ICS). London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc. 5 March 1946. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 810.
^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 220.
^ Gilbert 1988, pp. 265–266, 321.
^ Charmley 1995, pp. 246–249, 298.
^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 250, 441.
^ Collins, Stephen (17 November 2014). “Winston Churchill spoke of his hopes for a united Ireland”. The Irish Times. Dublin. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
^ “1950: Labour limps home”. BBC News. London: BBC. 2001. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 842.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 844.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 844–845.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 858.
^ Judd, Dennis (2012). George VI. London: I. B. Tauris. p. 260. ISBN 978-17-80760-71-1.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Charmley 1995, pp. 263–265.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 860.
^ Gilbert 1988, pp. 814–815, 817.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 847.
^ Gilbert 1988, pp. 846–857.
^ Charmley 1995, p. 266.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 868–871.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 896.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 846–848.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 847, 855.
^ Charmley 1995, p. 255.
^ Brown, Judith (1998). The Twentieth Century. The Oxford History of the British Empire, Volume IV. Oxford University Press. pp. 339–340. ISBN 978-01-99246-79-3.
^ Charmley 1995, pp. 261, 277, 285.
^ Mumford, Andrew (2012). The Counter-Insurgency Myth: The British Experience of Irregular Warfare. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 49. ISBN 978-04-15667-45-6.
^ Gilbert 1988, pp. 805–806.
^ Blake & Louis 1993, p. 405.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 848–849.
^ Gilbert 1988, pp. 936–937.
^ Gilbert 1991, pp. 920–922.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 880–881.
^ Gilbert 1988, pp. 1009–1017.
^ Charmley 1995, pp. 289–291.
^ Rasor 2000, p. 205.
^ Gilbert 1988, pp. 1224–1225.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Jenkins 2001, p. 911.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 65, 89, 392, 911.
^ Lovell, Mary S. (2011). The Churchills. London: Little Brown Book Group. p. 486. ISBN 978-07-48117-11-6.
^ Montague Browne, Anthony (1995). Long Sunset: Memoirs of Winston Churchill’s Last Private Secretary. Ashford: Podkin Press. pp. 302–303. ISBN 978-09-55948-30-5.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Gilbert 1991, p. 958.
^ Bennett, William J. (2007). America the Last Best Hope. Volume II. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc. pp. 376–380. ISBN 978-14-18531-10-2.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Jenkins 2001, p. 912.
^ Rasor 2000, p. 300.
^ Dunn, James (14 March 2015). “Gandhi statue unveiled in Parliament Square – next to his old enemy Churchill”. The Independent. London. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
^ Waterfield, Giles (Summer 2005). “The Churchill Museum: Ministry of sound”. Museum Practice. London: Museums Association (30): 18–21.
^ “Churchill Voted Greatest Briton”. BBC News. London: BBC. 24 November 2002. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
^ 88th Congress (1963–1964) (9 April 1963). “H.R. 4374 (88th): An Act to proclaim Sir Winston Churchill an honorary citizen of the United States of America”. Civic Impulse, LLC. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
^ “Christening of the USS Winston S. Churchill“. International Churchill Society (ICS). London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc. 15 January 2004. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
^ Colombo, John Robert (1984). Canadian Literary Landmarks. Toronto: Dundurn. ISBN 978-08-88820-73-0.
^ “Spring 1899 (Age 24): The First Political Campaign”. International Churchill Society (ICS). London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc. 5 February 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
^ “Winston Churchill’s Way With Words”. NPR.org. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
^ Alldritt, K. (1992). Churchill the writer : his life as a man of letters. London: Hutchinson. p. 40. ISBN 9780091770853.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 819–823.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 506–507.
^ “The Nobel Prize in Literature 1953 – Winston Churchill”. Stockholm: Nobel Media AB. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 279.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Knickerbocker 1941, pp. 140, 150, 178–179.
^ Soames, Mary (1990). Winston Churchill: His Life as a Painter. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 1–224. ISBN 978-03-95563-19-9.
^ Wainwright, Martin (19 August 2010). “Winston Churchill’s butterfly house brought back to life”. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
^ Glueckstein, Fred (20 June 2013). “Churchill’s Feline Menagerie”. International Churchill Society (ICS). London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
^ Richards, Michael (9 June 2013). “Red Herrings: Famous Quotes Churchill Never Said”. International Churchill Society (ICS). London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Jenkins 2001, p. 3.
^ Addison 1980, pp. 25, 29, 36.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 3, 22, 24, 60.
^ Haffner 2003, p. 19.
^ Addison 1980, p. 36.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 213.
^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 6.
^ Addison 1980, pp. 23, 25.
^ Jenkins 2001, pp. 121, 245.
^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 20.
^ Gilbert 1991, p. 168.
^ Rhodes James 1970, pp. 4, 19.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. xv.
^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 53.
^ Rhodes James 1970, p. ix.
^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 31.
^ Rhodes James 1970, pp. 31–33.
^ Gilbert 1991, p. xx.
^ Hermiston 2016, p. 19.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 601.
^ Ball 2001, pp. 311, 330.
^ Addison 1980, p. 26.
^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 174.
^ Addison 1980, pp. 42–43, 44.
^ Moritz, Jr. 1958, p. 428.
^ Gilbert 1991, p. xix.
^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 34.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Jenkins 2001, p. 152.
^ Addison 1980, p. 44.
^ Rhodes James 1970, p. 33.
^ Rhodes James 1970, pp. 33–34.
^ Addison 1980, p. 38.
^ Ball 2001, p. 308.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 22.
^ Adams 2011, p. 253.
^ Addison 1980, pp. 32, 40–41.
^ Gilbert, Martin (31 May 2009). “Churchill and Eugenics”. International Churchill Society (ICS). London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc. Retrieved 22 June 2020. Like most of his contemporaries, family and friends, he regarded races as different, racial characteristics as signs of the maturity of a society, and racial purity as endangered not only by other races but by mental weaknesses within a race.
^ Duranti, Marco. The Conservative Human Rights Revolution: European Identity, Transnational Politics, and the Origins of the European Convention. Oxford University Press. p. 125. We will endeavour as far as we can to advance the principle of equal rights of civilized men irrespective of colour. … We will not—at least I will pledge myself—hesitate to speak out when necessary if any plain case of cruelty of exploitation of the native for the sordid profit of the white man can be provided.
^ Addison 2005, p. 233.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Addison 1980, p. 39.
^ Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer (8 February 1920). “Zionism Versus Bolshevism: A Struggle for the Soul of the Jewish People” The Illustrated Sunday Herald. pg. 5.
^ Brustein, William I. (13 October 2003). Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. p. 309. ISBN 978-0-521-77478-9.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Cohen, Michael J. (13 September 2013). Churchill and the Jews, 1900-1948. Routledge. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-1-135-31906-9.
^ Freeman, David (Winter 2012–13). “Books, Arts & Curiosities – The Long and short of Churchill Biographies”. International Churchill Society (ICS). London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
^ Sorrels, Roy W. (1984). “10 People Who Hated Portraits of Themselves”. In Wallechinsky, David; Wallace, Irving; Wallace, Amy (eds.). The People’s Almanac Book of Lists. New York City: William Morrow & Co. p. 190. ISBN 978-05-52123-71-6.
^ “The Sutherland Portrait”. International Churchill Society (ICS). London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc. 29 November 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 890.
^ “Albert Finney”. Television Academy – The Emmys. North Hollywood: ATAS. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
^ “Oscars: Gary Oldman Wins Best Actor for Darkest Hour“. Hollywood Reporter. New York City. 4 March 2018. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
^ Liao, Shannon (17 September 2017). “John Lithgow wins the Emmy for Supporting Actor in a Drama Series”. The Verge. New York City: Vox Media. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
^ Gilbert 1991, p. 200; Jenkins 2001, p. 140.
^ Gilbert 1991, p. 207.
^ Doward, Jamie (25 February 2018). “Revealed: secret affair with a socialite that nearly wrecked Churchill’s career”. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
^ Roberts 2018, pp. 385–387.
^ Gilbert 1991, p. 205; Jenkins 2001, p. 203.
^ Soames, Mary (2012). A Daughter’s Tale: The Memoir of Winston and Clementine Churchill’s Youngest Child. London: Transworld Publishers Limited. p. 13. ISBN 978-05-52770-92-7.
^ Gilbert 1991, p. 439.
^ Soames 1998, p. 262.
^ Jenkins 2001, p. 209.
^ Churchill, Randolph S. (1966). Winston S. Churchill: Volume One: Youth, 1874–1900. Hillsdale, Michigan: Hillsdale College Press. pp. 13–16. ISBN 978-09-16308-08-7.

Bibliography[edit source]

Arthur, Max (2017). Churchill – The Life: An authorised pictorial biography. London: Cassell. ISBN 978-17-88400-02-2.
Adams, Edward (2011). Liberal Epic: The Victorian Practice of History from Gibbon to Churchill. Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-08-13931-45-6.
Addison, Paul (1980). “The Political Beliefs of Winston Churchill”. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 30: 23–47. doi:10.2307/3679001. JSTOR 3679001.
Addison, Paul (2005). Churchill: The Unexpected Hero. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-01-99297-43-6.
Allen, Louis (1984). Burma: The Longest War 1941–1945. J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd. ISBN 978-04-60024-74-7.
Ball, Stuart (2001). “Churchill and the Conservative Party”. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 11: 307–330. doi:10.1017/S0080440101000160. JSTOR 3679426. S2CID 153860359.
Bayly, Christopher; Harper, Tim (2004). Forgotten Armies: Britain’s Asian Empire & the War with Japan. Penguin History. ISBN 978-01-40293-31-9.
Bell, Christopher M. (2011). “Sir John Fisher’s Naval Revolution Reconsidered: Winston Churchill at the Admiralty, 1911–1914”. War in History. 18 (3): 333–356. doi:10.1177/0968344511401489. S2CID 159573922.
Best, Geoffrey (2001). Churchill: A Study in Greatness. London and New York: Hambledon and Continuum. ISBN 978-18-52852-53-5.
Blake, Robert; Louis, Wm. Roger, eds. (1993). Churchill: A Major New Reassessment of His Life in Peace and War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-01-98203-17-9. OCLC 30029512.
Charmley, John (1995). Churchill’s Grand Alliance, 1940–1957. London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. ISBN 978-01-51275-81-6. OCLC 247165348.
Churchill, Winston (1967b) [first published 1948]. The Twilight War: 3 September 1939 – 10 May 1940. The Gathering Storm. The Second World War. Vol. II (9th ed.). London: Cassell & Co. Ltd.
Douglas, R. M. (2009). “Did Britain Use Chemical Weapons in Mandatory Iraq?”. The Journal of Modern History. 81 (4): 859–887. doi:10.1086/605488. S2CID 154708409.
Gilbert, Martin (1991). Churchill: A Life. London: Heinemann. ISBN 978-04-34291-83-0.
Gilbert, Martin (1988). Never Despair: Winston S. Churchill, 1945–1965. Trowbridge: Minerva. ISBN 978-07-49391-04-1.
Haffner, Sebastian (2003). Churchill. John Brownjohn (translator). London: Haus. ISBN 978-19-04341-07-9. OCLC 852530003.
Hastings, Max (2009). Finest Years. Churchill as Warlord, 1940–45. Hammersmith: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-00-07263-67-7.
Hermiston, Roger (2016). All Behind You, Winston – Churchill’s Great Coalition, 1940–45. London: Aurum Press. ISBN 978-17-81316-64-1.
Jenkins, Roy (2001). Churchill. London: Macmillan Press. ISBN 978-03-30488-05-1.
Johnson, Boris (2014). The Churchill Factor: How One Man Made History. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-14-44783-05-6.
Johnson, Paul (2010). Churchill. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-01-43117-99-5.
Jordan, Anthony J. (1995). Churchill, A Founder of Modern Ireland. Westport, Mayo: Westport Books. ISBN 978-09-52444-70-1.
Khan, Yasmin (2015). India at War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975349-9.
Knickerbocker, H. R. (1941). Is Tomorrow Hitler’s? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind. New York: Reynal & Hitchcock. ISBN 978-14-17992-77-5.
Langworth, Richard (2008). Churchill in His Own Words. London: Ebury Press. ISBN 978-00-91933-36-4.
Moritz, Jr., Edward (1958). “Winston Churchill – Prison Reformer”. The Historian. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. 20 (4): 428–440. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1958.tb01990.x. JSTOR 24437567.
Rasor, Eugene L. (2000). Winston S. Churchill, 1874–1965: A Comprehensive Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-03-13305-46-7.
Reagles, David; Larsen, Timothy (2013). “Winston Churchill and Almighty God”. Historically Speaking. Boston, Massachusetts: Johns Hopkins University Press. 14 (5): 8–10. doi:10.1353/hsp.2013.0056. S2CID 161952924.
Rhodes James, Robert (1970). Churchill: A Study in Failure 1900–1939. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-02-97820-15-4.
Roberts, Andrew (2018). Churchill: Walking with Destiny. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-11-01980-99-6.
Robbins, Keith (2014) [1992]. Churchill: Profiles in Power. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-13-17874-52-2.
Sen, Amartya (1977). “Starvation and exchange entitlements: a general approach and its application to the Great Bengal Famine”. Cambridge Journal of Economics. 1 (1): 33–59. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.cje.a035349.
Shakespeare, Nicholas (2017). Six Minutes in May. London: Vintage. ISBN 978-17-84701-00-0.
Soames, Mary (1998). Speaking for Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and Clementine Churchill. London: Doubleday. ISBN 978-03-85406-91-8.
Taylor, Frederick (2005). Dresden: Tuesday, 13 February 1945. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-07-47570-84-4.
Toye, Richard (2007). Lloyd George and Churchill: Rivals for Greatness. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-14-05048-96-5.

External links[edit source]

Winston Churchillat Wikipedia’s sister projects

Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Data from Wikidata

Winston Churchill at Curlie
Churchill’s First World War from the Imperial War Museum.
FBI files on Winston Churchill.
Winston Churchill’s Personal Manuscripts.
Winston Churchill on Nobelprize.org

Bibliographies and online collections

Works by Winston Churchill at Project Gutenberg
Works by Winston S. (Spencer) Churchill at Faded Page (Canada)
Works by or about Winston Churchill at Internet Archive
Works by Winston Churchill at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

Recordings

EarthStation1: Winston Churchill Speech Audio Archive.
Amateur colour film footage of Churchill’s funeral from the Imperial War Museum.

Museums, archives and libraries

Portraits of Winston Churchill at the National Portrait Gallery, London
Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Winston Churchill
“Archival material relating to Winston Churchill”. UK National Archives.
Records and images from the UK Parliament Collections.
The International Churchill Society (ICS).
Imperial War Museum: Churchill War Rooms. Comprising the original underground War Rooms preserved since 1945, including the Cabinet Room, the Map Room and Churchill’s bedroom, and the new Museum dedicated to Churchill’s life.
War Cabinet Minutes (1942), (1942–43), (1945–46), (1946).
Locations of correspondence and papers of Churchill at the UK National Archives.
Newspaper clippings about Winston Churchill in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

Parliament of the United Kingdom
Preceded byWalter Runciman	Member of Parliament for Oldham 1900–1906 Served alongside: Alfred Emmott	Succeeded byJohn Bright
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Records
Preceded byDavie Logan	Oldest sitting Member of Parliament 1964	Succeeded byManny Shinwell

hide v t e Winston Churchill
Life	Early life, 1874–1904 In politics, 1900–1939 Liberal Party, 1904–1924 Chancellor, 1924–1929 “Wilderness” years, 1929–1939 World War II, 1939–1945 Later life, 1945–1965 Electoral history As a historian As a painter As a writer Death and funeral
Ministries	Churchill war ministry, 1940–1945 timeline conferences Churchill caretaker ministry, 1945 Churchill’s third ministry, 1951–1955
Writings	The Story of the Malakand Field Force (1898)Savrola (1899 novel)The River War (1899)London to Ladysmith via Pretoria (1900)Ian Hamilton’s March (1900)Lord Randolph Churchill (1906)The World Crisis (1923–1931, five volumes)My Early Life (1930)Marlborough: His Life and Times (1933–1938, four volumes)Great Contemporaries (1937)Arms and the Covenant (1938)The Second World War (1948–1963, six volumes)A History of the English-Speaking Peoples (1956–1958, four volumes)
Speeches	“A total and unmitigated defeat“”Blood, toil, tears and sweat“”Be ye men of valour“”We shall fight on the beaches“”This was their finest hour“”Never was so much owed by so many to so few“”Iron Curtain“
Legacy and depictions	Honours International Churchill Society Churchill War Rooms and Museum National Churchill Museum (Fulton, Missouri)Palace of Westminster statue Parliament Square statue Washington, DC statue Woodford, London statue Churchill College, Cambridge Churchill Archives Centre Memorial Trusts Schools and higher education (various)Boulevard in Mississauga, Ontario others Epstein busts Mishkenot Sha’ananim bust, IsraelThe Roaring LionSutherland portrait Racial views Cultural depictions“Churchillian Drift“
Related	Blenheim Palace Chartwell Norway Debate“Operation Unthinkable“Political ideology Siege of Sidney Street St Martin’s Church, Bladon“Sword of Stalingrad“”Terminological inexactitude“”The Other Club“Tonypandy riots War cabinet crisis, May 1940 Honorary U.S. citizenship
Family	Clementine Churchill (wife)Diana Churchill (daughter)Randolph Churchill (son)Sarah Churchill (daughter)Marigold Churchill (daughter)Mary Soames (daughter)Winston Churchill (grandson)Lord Randolph Churchill (father)Jennie Jerome, Lady Randolph Churchill (mother)Jack Churchill (brother)Descendants John Spencer-Churchill (grandfather)Frances Anne Spencer-Churchill (grandmother)Leonard Jerome (grandfather)Family of Winston Churchill in politics

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Contents

Early years[edit source]

Jesuit (1958–2013)[edit source]

Presbyterate (1969–1992)[edit source]

Pre-papal episcopate (1992–2013)[edit source]

Cardinalate (2001–2013)[edit source]

Relations with Argentine governments[edit source]

Dirty War[edit source]

Fernando de la Rúa[edit source]

Néstor and Cristina Kirchner[edit source]

Papacy (2013–present)[edit source]

Election[edit source]

Name[edit source]

Curia[edit source]

Early issues[edit source]

Synodal church[edit source]

Consultation with Catholic laity[edit source]

Institute for the Works of Religion[edit source]

Papal documents[edit source]

Ecumenism and interreligious dialogue[edit source]

Clerical titles[edit source]

Canonizations and beatifications[edit source]

Doctors of the Church[edit source]

Consistories[edit source]

Year of Mercy[edit source]

COVID-19 pandemic[edit source]

Role of women[edit source]

Financial corruption[edit source]

Theological emphases[edit source]

Evangelization[edit source]

Church governance[edit source]

Environment[edit source]

Option for the poor[edit source]

Morality[edit source]

LGBT[edit source]

Religious persecution[edit source]

Controversies[edit source]

Sexual abuse response[edit source]

Theological disagreements[edit source]

Amoris laetitia and the communion to the divorced and civilly remarried[edit source]

Document on Human Fraternity[edit source]

Traditionis custodes and the restriction of the Tridentine Mass[edit source]

International policy[edit source]

International diplomatic role[edit source]

Public image[edit source]

Distinctions[edit source]

Titles and styles[edit source]

Foreign orders[edit source]

Awards[edit source]

Academic honors[edit source]

Honorific eponyms and dedications[edit source]

Appreciation[edit source]

Coat of arms[edit source]

Writings[edit source]

Music album[edit source]

Films[edit source]

Documentary film[edit source]

Portrayal in film[edit source]

See also[edit source]

Notes[edit source]

References[edit source]

Bibliography[edit source]

External links[edit source]

Winston Churchill

Contents

Early life[edit source]

Childhood and schooling: 1874–1895[edit source]

Cuba, India, and Sudan: 1895–1899[edit source]

Politics and South Africa: 1899–1901[edit source]

Conservative MP: 1901–1904[edit source]

Liberal MP: 1904–1908[edit source]

Asquith government: 1908–1915[edit source]

President of the Board of Trade: 1908–1910[edit source]

Home Secretary: 1910–1911[edit source]

First Lord of the Admiralty[edit source]

Military service, 1915–1916[edit source]

Lloyd George government: 1916–1922[edit source]

Minister of Munitions: 1917–1919[edit source]