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William Franklin Graham Jr. (November 7, 1918 – February 21, 2018) was an American evangelist, a prominent evangelical Christian figure, and an ordained Southern Baptist minister who became well known internationally in the late 1940s. One of his biographers has placed him “among the most influential Christian leaders” of the 20th century.^[2]

As a preacher, he held large indoor and outdoor rallies with sermons that were broadcast on radio and television; some were still being re-broadcast into the 21st century.^[3] In his six decades on television, Graham hosted annual “Crusades“, evangelistic campaigns that ran from 1947 until his retirement in 2005. He also hosted the radio show Hour of Decision from 1950 to 1954. He repudiated racial segregation^[4] and insisted on racial integration for his revivals and crusades, starting in 1953; he also invited Martin Luther King Jr. to preach jointly at a revival in New York City in 1957. In addition to his religious aims, he helped shape the worldview of a huge number of people who came from different backgrounds, leading them to find a relationship between the Bible and contemporary secular viewpoints. According to his website, Graham preached to live audiences of 210 million people in more than 185 countries and territories through various meetings, including BMS World Mission and Global Mission.^[5]

Graham was a spiritual adviser to U.S. presidents, and he provided spiritual counsel for every president from Harry S. Truman (33rd) to Barack Obama (44th).^[6] He was particularly close to Dwight D. Eisenhower, Lyndon B. Johnson (one of Graham’s closest friends),^[7] and Richard Nixon.^[8] He was also lifelong friends with another televangelist, the founding pastor of the Crystal Cathedral, Robert Schuller, whom Graham talked into starting his own television ministry.^[9]

Graham operated a variety of media and publishing outlets.^[10] According to his staff, more than 3.2 million people have responded to the invitation at Billy Graham Crusades to “accept Jesus Christ as their personal savior“. Graham’s evangelism was appreciated by mainline Protestant denominations, as he encouraged those mainline Protestants who were converted to his evangelical message to remain within or return to their mainline churches.^[11][12] Despite his early suspicions and apprehension, common among contemporaneous evangelical Protestants, towards Roman Catholicism, Graham eventually developed amicable ties with many American Catholic Church figures and later encouraged unity between Roman Catholics and Protestants.^[13] As of 2008, Graham’s estimated lifetime audience, including radio and television broadcasts, topped 2.2 billion. Because of his crusades, Graham preached the gospel to more people in person than anyone in the history of Christianity.^[10] Graham was on Gallup’s list of most admired men and women a record 61 times.^[14] Grant Wacker writes that by the mid-1960s, he had become the “Great Legitimator”: “By then his presence conferred status on presidents, acceptability on wars, shame on racial prejudice, desirability on decency, dishonor on indecency, and prestige on civic events.”^[15]

Contents

• 1Early life
  • 1.1Crusades
    • 1.1.1Student ministry
    • 1.1.2Evangelistic association
    • 1.1.3Civil rights movement
    • 1.1.4Lausanne Movement
• 2Multiple roles
• 3Later life
• 4Politics
  • 4.1Pastor to presidents
  • 4.2Relationship with Queen Elizabeth II
  • 4.3Foreign policy views
• 5Controversial views
  • 5.1Discussion of Jews with President Nixon
  • 5.2Ecumenism
  • 5.3Views on women
  • 5.4Views on homosexuality
• 6Awards and honors
  • 6.1Other honors
• 7Media portrayals
• 8Works
  • 8.1Books
• 9Personal life
• 10Death
• 11References
• 12Literature
• 13Further reading
• 14External links

Early life[edit source]

William Franklin Graham Jr. was born on November 7, 1918, in the downstairs bedroom of a farmhouse near Charlotte, North Carolina.^[16] He was of Scots-Irish descent and was the eldest of four children born to Morrow (née Coffey) and William Franklin Graham Sr., a dairy farmer.^[16] Graham was raised on a family dairy farm with his two younger sisters, Catherine Morrow and Jean and a younger brother, Melvin Thomas.^[17] When he was nine years old, the family moved about 75 yards (69 m) from their white frame house to a newly built red brick home.^[18][16] He was raised by his parents in the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church.^[16][19] Graham attended the Sharon Grammar School.^[20] He started to read books from an early age and loved to read novels for boys, especially Tarzan.^[16] Like Tarzan, he would hang on the trees and gave the popular Tarzan yell. According to his father, that yelling had led him to become a minister.^[21] Graham was 15 when Prohibition ended in December 1933, and his father forced him and his sister Katherine to drink beer until they became sick. This created such an aversion that Graham and his sister avoided alcohol and drugs for the rest of their lives.^[22]

Graham had been turned down for membership in a local youth group for being “too worldly”.^[22] Albert McMakin, who worked on the Graham farm, persuaded him to go and see the evangelist Mordecai Ham.^[10] According to his autobiography, Graham was 16 in 1934 when he was converted during a series of revival meetings that Ham led in Charlotte.^[23][24]

After graduating from Sharon High School in May 1936, Graham attended Bob Jones College. After one semester, he found that the coursework and rules were too legalistic.^[22] At this time he was influenced and inspired by Pastor Charley Young from Eastport Bible Church. He was almost expelled, but Bob Jones Sr. warned him not to throw his life away: “At best, all you could amount to would be a poor country Baptist preacher somewhere out in the sticks … You have a voice that pulls. God can use that voice of yours. He can use it mightily.”^[22]

In 1937, Graham transferred to the Florida Bible Institute in Temple Terrace, Florida.^[25] While still a student, Graham preached his first sermon at Bostwick Baptist Church near Palatka, Florida.^[26] In his autobiography, Graham wrote of receiving his “calling on the 18th green of the Temple Terrace Golf an Country Club”, which was adjacent to the institute’s campus. Reverend Billy Graham Memorial Park was later established on the Hillsborough River, directly east of the 18th green and across from where Graham often paddled a canoe to a small island in the river, where he would practice preaching to the birds, alligators, and cypress stumps. In 1939, Graham was ordained by a group of Southern Baptist clergy at Peniel Baptist Church in Palatka, Florida.^[27] In 1940, he graduated from there with a Bachelor of Theology degree.^[28][29]

Graham then enrolled in Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois, and during his time at there he decided to accept the Bible as the infallible word of God. Henrietta Mears of the First Presbyterian Church of Hollywood in California was instrumental in helping Graham wrestle with the issue. He settled it at Forest Home Christian Camp (now called Forest Home Ministries) southeast of the Big Bear Lake area in southern California.^[30][31] While attending Wheaton in 1941, Graham was invited to preach one Sunday at the United Gospel Tabernacle church. After that, the congregation repeatedly asked Graham preach at their church and later asked him to become the pastor of their church. After Graham prayed and sought advice from his friend, Dr. Edman, Graham become the pastor of their church.^[32]

In June 1943, Graham graduated from Wheaton College^[33] with a degree in anthropology.^[34] That same year, Robert Van Kampen, treasurer of the National Gideon Association, invited Graham to preach at Western Springs Baptist Church, and Graham accepted the opportunity on the spot. While there, his friend Torrey Johnson, pastor of the Midwest Bible Church in Chicago, told Graham that his radio program, Songs in the Night, was about to be canceled due to lack of funding. Consulting with the members of his church in Western Springs, Graham decided to take over Johnson’s program with financial support from his congregation. Launching the new radio program on January 2, 1944, still called Songs in the Night, Graham recruited the bass-baritone George Beverly Shea as his director of radio ministry.

In 1948, in a hotel room in Modesto, California, Graham and his evangelistic team established the Modesto Manifesto, a code of ethics for life and work to protect against accusations of financial, sexual and power abuse.^[35] This code includes rules for collecting offerings in churches, working only with churches supportive of cooperative evangelism, using official crowd estimates at outdoor events, and a commitment to never be alone with a woman other than his wife (which become known as the “Billy Graham rule”).^[36][37]

Graham was 29 in 1948 when he became president of Northwestern Bible College in Minneapolis; he was the youngest president of a college or university in the country and held the position for four years before he resigned in 1952.^[38] Graham initially intended to become a chaplain in the Armed Forces, but he contracted mumps shortly after applying for a commission. After a period of recuperation in Florida, he was hired as the first full-time evangelist of the new Youth for Christ (YFC), co-founded by Torrey Johnson and the Canadian evangelist Charles Templeton. Graham traveled throughout both the United States and Europe as a YFCI evangelist. Templeton applied to Princeton Theological Seminary for an advanced theological degree and urged Graham to do so as well, but he declined as he was already serving as the president of Northwestern Bible College.^[39]

In 1949 Graham scheduled a series of revival meetings in Los Angeles, for which he erected circus tents in a parking lot.^[10] He attracted national media coverage, especially in the conservative Hearst chain of newspapers, although Hearst and Graham never met.^[40] The crusade event ran for eight weeks – five weeks longer than planned. Graham became a national figure with heavy coverage from the wire services and national magazines.^[41] Pianist Rudy Atwood, who played for the tent meetings, wrote that they “rocketed Billy Graham into national prominence, and resulted in the conversion of a number of show-business personalities”.^[42]

Crusades[edit source]

Main article: List of Billy Graham’s crusadesGraham speaking at a Crusade in Düsseldorf, Germany on June 21, 1954.

From the time his ministry began in 1947, Graham conducted more than 400 crusades in 185 countries and territories on six continents. The first Billy Graham Crusade, held September 13–21, 1947, in the Civic Auditorium in Grand Rapids, Michigan, was attended by 6,000 people. Graham was 28 years old. He called them crusades, after the medieval Christian forces who conquered Jerusalem.^{[citation needed]} He would rent a large venue, such as a stadium, park, or street. As the sessions became larger, he arranged a group of up to 5,000 people to sing in a choir. He would preach the gospel and invite people to come forward (a practice begun by Dwight L. Moody). Such people were called inquirers and were given the chance to speak one-on-one with a counselor, to clarify questions and pray together. The inquirers were often given a copy of the Gospel of John or a Bible study booklet. In Durban, South Africa, in 1973, the crowd of some 100,000 was the first large mixed-race event in apartheid South Africa in which he stated that “apartheid is a sin.”^[43][44] In Moscow, in 1992, one-quarter of the 155,000 people in Graham’s audience went forward at his call.^[22] During his crusades, he frequently used the altar call song, “Just As I Am“.^[45]

Graham was offered a five-year, $1 million contract from NBC to appear on television opposite Arthur Godfrey, but he had prearranged commitments. He turned down the offer in order to continue his touring revivals.^[46] Graham had crusades in London, which lasted 12 weeks, and a New York City crusade in Madison Square Garden in 1957, which ran nightly for 16 weeks.

Student ministry[edit source]

Graham spoke at InterVarsity Christian Fellowship’s Urbana Student Missions Conference at least nine times – in 1948, 1957, 1961, 1964, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1984, and 1987.^[47]

At each Urbana conference, he challenged the thousands of attendees to make a commitment to follow Jesus Christ for the rest of their lives. He often quoted a six-word phrase that was reportedly written in the Bible of William Whiting Borden, the son of a wealthy silver magnate: “No reserves, no retreat, no regrets”.^[48] Borden had died in Egypt on his way to the mission field.^{[citation needed]}

Graham also held evangelistic meetings on a number of college campuses: at the University of Minnesota during InterVarsity’s “Year of Evangelism” in 1950–51, a 4-day mission at Yale University in 1957, and a week-long series of meetings at the University of North Carolina’s Carmichael Auditorium in September 1982.^[49]

In 1955, he was invited by Cambridge University students to lead the mission at the university; the mission was arranged by the Cambridge Inter-Collegiate Christian Union, with London pastor-theologian John Stott serving as Graham’s chief assistant. This invitation was greeted with much disapproval in the correspondence columns of The Times.^[50]

Evangelistic association[edit source]

In 1950, Graham founded the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (BGEA) with its headquarters in Minneapolis. The association relocated to Charlotte, North Carolina, in 1999, and maintains a number of international offices, such as in Hong Kong, Tokyo, and Buenos Aires.^[43] BGEA ministries have included:

• Hour of Decision, a weekly radio program broadcast around the world for 66 years (1950-2016)^[51]
• Mission television specials broadcast in almost every market in the US and Canada^{[citation needed]}
• A syndicated newspaper column, My Answer, carried by newspapers across the United States and distributed by Tribune Content Agency^[52]
• Decision magazine, the official publication of the association^[53]
• Christianity Today was started in 1956 with Carl F. H. Henry as its first editor^{[citation needed]}
• Passageway.org, the website for a youth discipleship program created by BGEA^{[citation needed]}
• World Wide Pictures, which has produced and distributed more than 130 films^{[citation needed]}

In April 2013, the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association started “My Hope With Billy Graham”, the largest outreach in its history, encouraging church members to spread the gospel in small group meetings after showing a video message by Graham. “The idea is for Christians to follow the example of the disciple Matthew in the New Testament and spread the gospel in their own homes.”^[54] The video, called “The Cross”, is the main program in the My Hope America series and was also broadcast the week of Graham’s 95th birthday.^[55]

Civil rights movement[edit source]

Graham’s early crusades were segregated, but he began adjusting his approach in the 1950s.^[56] During a 1953 rally in Chattanooga, Tennessee, Graham tore down the ropes that organizers had erected in order to segregate the audience into racial sections. In his memoirs, he recounted that he told two ushers to leave the barriers down “or you can go on and have the revival without me.”^[57] He warned a white audience, “we have been proud and thought we were better than any other race, any other people. Ladies and gentlemen, we are going to stumble into hell because of our pride.”^[57]

In 1957, Graham’s stance towards integration became more publicly shown when he allowed black ministers Thomas Kilgore and Gardner C. Taylor to serve as members of his New York Crusade’s executive committee^[58] and invited Martin Luther King Jr., whom he first met during the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955,^[58] to join him in the pulpit at his 16-week revival in New York City, where 2.3 million gathered at Madison Square Garden, Yankee Stadium, and Times Square to hear them.^[10] Graham recalled in his autobiography that during this time, he and King developed a close friendship and that he was eventually one of the few people who referred to King as “Mike”, a nickname which King asked only his closest friends to call him.^[59] Following King’s assassination in 1968, Graham mourned that the US had lost “a social leader and a prophet”.^[58] In private, Graham advised King and other members of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).^[60]

Despite their friendship, tensions between Graham and King emerged in 1958 when the sponsoring committee of a crusade which took place in San Antonio, Texas on July 25 arranged for Graham to be introduced by that state’s segregationist governor, Price Daniel.^[58] On July 23, King sent a letter to Graham and informed him that allowing Daniel to speak at a crusade which occurred the night before the state’s Democratic Primary “can well be interpreted as your endorsement of racial segregation and discrimination.”^[61] Graham’s advisor, Grady Wilson, replied to King that “even though we do not see eye to eye with him on every issue, we still love him in Christ.”^[62] Though Graham’s appearance with Daniel dashed King’s hopes of holding joint crusades with Graham in the Deep South,^[60] the two still remained friends and King told a Canadian television audience the following year that Graham had taken a “very strong stance against segregation.”^[60] Graham and King would also come to differ on the Vietnam War.^[58] After King’s “Beyond Vietnam” speech denouncing US intervention in Vietnam, Graham castigated him and others for their criticism of US foreign policy.^[58]

By the middle of 1960, King and Graham traveled together to the Tenth Baptist World Congress of the Baptist World Alliance.^[58] In 1963, Graham posted bail for King to be released from jail during the Birmingham campaign, according to Long (2008),^[63] and the King Center acknowledged that Graham had bailed King out of jail during the Albany Movement,^[64] although historian Steven Miller told CNN he could not find any proof of the incident.^[65] Graham held integrated crusades in Birmingham, Alabama, on Easter 1964 in the aftermath of the bombing of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, and toured Alabama again in the wake of the violence that accompanied the first Selma to Montgomery march in 1965.^[58]

Following Graham’s death, former SCLC official and future Atlanta politician Andrew Young, who spoke alongside Coretta Scott King at Graham’s 1994 crusade in Atlanta,^[66] acknowledged his friendship with Graham and stated that Graham did in fact travel with King to the 1965 European Baptist Convention.^[67] Young also claimed that Graham had often invited King to his crusades in the Northern states.^[68] Former Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) leader and future United States Congressman John Lewis also credited Graham as a major inspiration for his activism.^[69] Lewis described Graham as a “Saint” and someone who “taught us how to live and who taught us how to die.”^[69]

Graham’s faith prompted his maturing view of race and segregation; he told a member of the Ku Klux Klan that integration was necessary primarily for religious reasons: “There is no scriptural basis for segregation”, Graham argued. “The ground at the foot of the cross is level, and it touches my heart when I see whites standing shoulder to shoulder with blacks at the cross.”^[70]

Lausanne Movement[edit source]

The friendship between Graham and John Stott led to a further partnership in the Lausanne Movement, of which Graham was a founder. It built on Graham’s 1966 World Congress on Evangelism in Berlin.^{[clarification needed]} In collaboration with Christianity Today, Graham convened what Time magazine described as “a formidable forum, possibly the widest–ranging meeting of Christians ever held”^[71] with 2,700 participants from 150 nations gathering for the International Congress on World Evangelization. Women were represented by Millie Dienert, who chaired the prayer committee.^[72] This took place in Lausanne, Switzerland (July 16–25, 1974), and the movement which ensued took its name from the host city. Its purpose was to strengthen the global church for world evangelization, and to engage ideological and sociological trends which bore on this.^[73] Graham invited Stott to be chief architect of the Lausanne Covenant, which issued from the Congress and which, according to Graham, “helped challenge and unite evangelical Christians in the great task of world evangelization.”^[74] The movement remains a significant fruit of Graham’s legacy, with a presence in nearly every nation.^[75]

Multiple roles[edit source]

Graham with his son, Franklin, at Cleveland Stadium, June 1994

Graham played multiple roles that reinforced each other. Grant Wacker identified eight major roles that he played: preacher, icon, Southerner, entrepreneur, architect (bridge builder), pilgrim, pastor and finally his widely recognized status as America’s Protestant patriarch, which was on a par with Martin Luther King and Pope John Paul II.^[76]

Graham deliberately reached into the secular world as a bridge builder. For example, as an entrepreneur he built his own pavilion for the 1964 New York World’s Fair.^[77] He appeared as a guest on a 1969 Woody Allen television special, where he joined the comedian in a witty exchange on theological matters.^[78] During the Cold War, Graham-the-bridge-builder became the first evangelist of note to speak behind the Iron Curtain, addressing large crowds in countries throughout Eastern Europe and in the Soviet Union, calling for peace.^[79] During the apartheid era, Graham consistently refused to visit South Africa until its government allowed integrated seating for audiences. During his first crusade there in 1973, he openly denounced apartheid.^[80] Graham also corresponded with imprisoned South African leader Nelson Mandela during the latter’s 27-year imprisonment.^[81]

Graham at the Feyenoord-stadion in Rotterdam, the Netherlands (June 30, 1955)

In 1984, he led a series of summer meetings—Mission England—in the United Kingdom, and he used outdoor football (soccer) fields for his venues.

Graham was interested in fostering evangelism around the world. In 1983, 1986 and 2000 he sponsored, organized and paid for massive training conferences for Christian evangelists; this was the largest representation of nations ever held until that time. Over 157 nations were gathered in 2000 at the RAI Convention Center in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. At one revival in Seoul, South Korea, Graham attracted more than one million people to a single service.^[46] He appeared in China in 1988 – for Ruth, this was a homecoming, since she had been born in China to missionary parents. He appeared in North Korea in 1992.^[70]

On October 15, 1989, Graham received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. He was the only person functioning as a minister who received a star in that capacity.^[82]

On September 22, 1991, Graham held his largest event in North America on the Great Lawn of Manhattan’s Central Park. City officials estimated that more than 250,000 were in attendance. In 1998, Graham spoke to a crowd of scientists and philosophers at the Technology, Entertainment, Design Conference.

On September 14, 2001 (only three days after the World Trade Center attacks), Graham was invited to lead a service at Washington National Cathedral; the service was attended by President George W. Bush and past and present leaders. He also spoke at the memorial service following the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995.^[70] On June 24–26, 2005, Graham began what he said would be his last North American crusade, three days at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in the borough of Queens, New York City. On the weekend of March 11–12, 2006, Graham held the “Festival of Hope” with his son, Franklin Graham. The festival was held in New Orleans, which was recovering from Hurricane Katrina.

Graham prepared one last sermon, “My Hope America”, which was released on DVD and played around America and possibly worldwide between November 7–10, 2013. November 7 was Graham’s 95th birthday, and he hoped to cause a revival.^[83]

Later life[edit source]

Graham said that his planned retirement was a result of his failing health; he had suffered from hydrocephalus from 1992 on.^[84] In August 2005, Graham appeared at the groundbreaking for his library in Charlotte, North Carolina. Then 86, he used a walker during the ceremony. On July 9, 2006, he spoke at the Metro Maryland Franklin Graham Festival, held in Baltimore, Maryland, at Oriole Park at Camden Yards.

In April 2010, Graham was 91 and experiencing substantial vision, hearing and balance loss when he made a rare public appearance at the re-dedication of the renovated Billy Graham Library.^[85]

There had been controversy over Graham’s proposed burial place; he announced in June 2007 that he and his wife would be buried alongside each other at the Billy Graham Library in his hometown of Charlotte. Graham’s younger son Ned had argued with older son Franklin about whether burial at a library would be appropriate. Ruth Graham had said that she wanted to be buried not in Charlotte but in the mountains at the Billy Graham Training Center at The Cove near Asheville, North Carolina, where she had lived for many years; Ned supported his mother’s choice.^[86][87] Novelist Patricia Cornwell, a family friend, also opposed burial at the library, calling it a tourist attraction. Franklin wanted his parents to be buried at the library site.^[86] At the time of Ruth Graham’s death, it was announced that they would be buried at the library site.^[87]

Politics[edit source]

After his close relationships with Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, Graham tried to avoid explicit partisanship. Bailey says: “He declined to sign or endorse political statements, and he distanced himself from the Christian right … His early years of fierce opposition to communism gave way to pleas for military disarmament and attention to AIDS, poverty and environmental threats.”^[88]

Graham was a lifelong registered member of the Democratic Party.^[89] In 1960, he was opposed to the candidacy of John F. Kennedy, fearing that Kennedy, as a Catholic, would be bound to follow the Pope. Graham worked “behind the scenes” to encourage influential Protestant ministers to speak out against Kennedy.^[90] During the 1960 campaign, Graham met with a conference of Protestant ministers in Montreux, Switzerland, to discuss their mobilization of congregations to defeat Kennedy.^[91] According to the PBS Frontline program, God in America (2010), Episode 5, in September 1960, Graham organized a meeting of hundreds of Protestant ministers in Washington, D.C. for this purpose; the meeting was led by Norman Vincent Peale.^[90] This was shortly before Kennedy’s speech in Houston, Texas on the separation of church and state; the speech was considered to be successful in meeting the concerns of many voters. After his election, however, Kennedy invited Graham to play golf in Palm Beach, Florida, after which Graham acknowledged Kennedy’s election as an opportunity for Catholics and Protestants to come closer together.^[92][93] After they had discussed Jesus Christ at that meeting, the two remained in touch, meeting for the last time at a National Day of Prayer meeting in February 1963.^[93] In his autobiography, Graham claimed to have felt an “inner foreboding” in the week before Kennedy’s assassination, and to have tried to contact him to say, “Don’t go to Texas!”^[94]

Graham opposed the large majority of abortions, but supported it as a legal option in a very narrow range of circumstances: rape, incest, and the life of the mother.^[95] The Billy Graham Evangelistic Association states that “Life is sacred, and we must seek to protect all human life: the unborn, the child, the adult, and the aged.”^[96]

Graham leaned toward the Republicans during the presidency of Richard Nixon, whom he had met and befriended as vice president under Dwight D. Eisenhower.^[97] He did not completely ally himself with the later religious right, saying that Jesus did not have a political party.^[22] He gave his support to various political candidates over the years.^[97]

In 2007, Graham explained his refusal to join Jerry Falwell‘s Moral Majority in 1979, saying: “I’m for morality, but morality goes beyond sex to human freedom and social justice. We as clergy know so very little to speak with authority on the Panama Canal or superiority of armaments. Evangelists cannot be closely identified with any particular party or person. We have to stand in the middle in order to preach to all people, right and left. I haven’t been faithful to my own advice in the past. I will be in the future.”^[98]

According to a 2006 Newsweek interview, “For Graham, politics is a secondary to the Gospel … When Newsweek asked Graham whether ministers – whether they think of themselves as evangelists, pastors or a bit of both – should spend time engaged with politics, he replied: ‘You know, I think in a way that has to be up to the individual as he feels led of the Lord. A lot of things that I commented on years ago would not have been of the Lord, I’m sure, but I think you have some – like communism, or segregation, on which I think you have a responsibility to speak out.’”^[99]

In 2012, Graham endorsed the Republican presidential candidate, Mitt Romney.^[100] Shortly after, apparently in order to accommodate Romney, who is a Mormon, references to Mormonism as a religious cult (“A cult is any group which teaches doctrines or beliefs that deviate from the biblical message of the Christian faith.”) were removed from Graham’s website.^[101][102] Observers have questioned whether the support of Republican and religious right politics on issues such as same-sex marriage coming from Graham – who stopped speaking in public or to reporters – in fact reflects the views of his son, Franklin, head of the BGEA. Franklin denied this, and said that he would continue to act as his father’s spokesperson rather than allowing press conferences.^[103] In 2016, according to his son Franklin, Graham voted for Donald Trump.^[104]

Pastor to presidents[edit source]

President Ronald Reagan and first lady Nancy Reagan greet Graham at the National Prayer Breakfast of 1981

Graham had a personal audience with many sitting US presidents, from Harry S. Truman to Barack Obama – 12 consecutive presidents. After meeting with Truman in 1950, Graham told the press he had urged the president to counter communism in North Korea. Truman disliked him and did not speak with him for years after that meeting.^[22] Later he always treated his conversations with presidents as confidential.^[97]

Truman was not fond of Graham. He wrote about Graham in his 1974 autobiography Plain Speaking, “But now we’ve got just this one evangelist, this Billy Graham, and he’s gone off the beam. He’s … well, I hadn’t ought to say this, but he’s one of those counterfeits I was telling you about. He claims he’s a friend of all the presidents, but he was never a friend of mine when I was President. I just don’t go for people like that. All he’s interested in is getting his name in the paper.”^[105]Graham in 1966

Graham became a regular visitor during the tenure of Dwight D. Eisenhower. He purportedly urged him to intervene with federal troops in the case of the Little Rock Nine to gain admission of black students to public schools.^[22] House Speaker Sam Rayburn convinced Congress to allow Graham to conduct the first religious service on the steps of the Capitol building in 1952.^[22][106] Eisenhower asked for Graham while on his deathbed.^[107]

Graham met and would become a close friend of Vice President Richard Nixon,^[97][108] and supported Nixon, a Quaker, for the 1960 presidential election.^[22] He convened an August strategy session of evangelical leaders in Montreaux, Switzerland, to plan how best to oppose Nixon’s Roman Catholic opponent, Senator John F. Kennedy.^[109] Though a registered Democrat, Graham also maintained firm support of aggression against the foreign threat of Communism and strongly sympathized with Nixon’s views regarding American foreign policy.^[110] Thus, he was more sympathetic to Republican administrations.^[97][111]

On December 16, 1963, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson, who was impressed by the way Graham had praised the work of his great-grandfather, George Washington Baines, invited Graham to the White House to give him spiritual counseling. After this visit, Johnson would frequently call on Graham for more spiritual counseling as well as companionship. As Graham recalled to his biographer Frady, “I almost used the White House as a hotel when Johnson was President. He was always trying to keep me there. He just never wanted me to leave.”^[60]

In contrast with his more limited access with Truman, Eisenhower and Kennedy, Graham would not only visit the White House private quarters but would also at times kneel at Johnson’s bedside and then pray with him whenever the President requested him to do so. Graham once recalled “I have never had many people do that.”^[60] In addition to his White House visits, Graham would visit Johnson at Camp David and occasionally met with the President when he retreated to his private ranch in Stonewall, Texas. Johnson was also the first sitting president to attend one of Graham’s crusades, which took place in Houston, Texas, in 1965.^[60]

During the 1964 United States presidential election, supporters of Republican nominee Barry Goldwater sent an estimated 2 million telegrams to Graham’s hometown of Montreat, North Carolina, and sought the preacher’s endorsement. Supportive of Johnson’s domestic policies, and hoping to preserve his friendship with the President, Graham resisted pressure to endorse Goldwater and stayed neutral in the election. Following Johnson’s election victory, Graham’s role as the main White House pastor was solidified. At one point, Johnson even considered making Graham a member of his cabinet and grooming him to be his successor, though Graham insisted he had no political ambitions and wished to remain a preacher.^[60] Graham’s biographer David Aikman acknowledged that the preacher was closer to Johnson than any other President he had ever known.^[110]

He spent the last night of Johnson’s presidency in the White House, and he stayed for the first night of Nixon’s.^[107] After Nixon’s victorious 1968 presidential campaign, Graham became an adviser, regularly visiting the White House and leading the president’s private worship services.^[97] In a meeting they had with Golda Meir, Nixon offered Graham the ambassadorship to Israel, but he refused.^[22]President Barack Obama and Graham meet at Graham’s home in Montreat, North Carolina, April 2010

In 1970, Nixon appeared at a Graham revival in East Tennessee, which they thought safe politically. It drew one of the largest crowds in Tennessee of protesters against the Vietnam War. Nixon was the first president to give a speech from an evangelist’s platform.^[97] Their friendship became strained in 1973 when Graham rebuked Nixon for his post-Watergate behavior and the profanity heard on the Watergate tapes.^[112] They eventually reconciled after Nixon’s resignation.^[97]

Graham officiated at one presidential burial and one presidential funeral. He presided over the graveside services of President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973 and took part in eulogizing the former president. Graham officiated at the funeral services of former First Lady Pat Nixon in 1993,^[22] and the death and state funeral of Richard Nixon in 1994.^[113] During the Monica Lewinsky scandal, Graham asserted that he believed President Bill Clinton to be “a spiritual person”.^{[citation needed]} He was unable to attend the state funeral of Ronald Reagan on June 11, 2004, as he was recovering from hip replacement surgery.^[114] This was mentioned by George W. Bush in his eulogy.

On April 25, 2010, President Barack Obama visited Graham at his home in Montreat, North Carolina, where they “had a private prayer”.^[115]

Relationship with Queen Elizabeth II[edit source]

Graham had a friendly relationship with Queen Elizabeth II and was frequently invited by the Royal Family to special events.^[116][117] They first met in 1955 and Graham preached at Windsor Chapel at the Queen’s invitation during the following year. Their friendly relationship may have been because they shared a traditional approach to the practical aspects of the Christian faith.^[118]

Foreign policy views[edit source]

Graham was outspoken against communism and supported the American Cold War policy, including the Vietnam War. In a secret letter from April 15, 1969, made public twenty years later, Graham encouraged Nixon to bomb the dikes in North Vietnam if the peace talks in Paris should fail. This action would “destroy the economy of North Vietnam” and, by Nixon’s estimate, would have killed a million people.^[119]

In 1982, Graham preached in the Soviet Union and attended a wreath-laying ceremony to honor the war dead of World War II, when the Soviets were American allies in the fight against Nazism. He voiced fear of a second holocaust, not against Jews, but “a nuclear holocaust” and advised that “our greatest contribution to world peace is to live with Christ every day.”^[120]

In a 1999 speech, Graham discussed his relationship with the late North Korean leader Kim Il-sung, praising him as a “different kind of communist” and “one of the great fighters for freedom in his country against the Japanese.” Graham went on to note that although he had never met Kim’s son and former North Korean leader Kim Jong-il, he had “exchanged gifts with him.”^[121]

Controversial views[edit source]

Discussion of Jews with President Nixon[edit source]

During the Watergate affair, there were suggestions that Graham had agreed with many of President Richard Nixon‘s antisemitic opinions, but he denied them and stressed his efforts to build bridges to the Jewish community. In 2002, the controversy was renewed when declassified “Richard Nixon tapes” confirmed remarks made by Graham to Nixon three decades earlier.^[122] Captured on the tapes, Graham agreed with Nixon that Jews control the American media, calling it a “stranglehold” during a 1972 conversation with Nixon, and suggesting that if Nixon was re-elected that they might be able to do something about it.^[123]

When the tapes were made public, Graham apologized^[124][125] and said, “Although I have no memory of the occasion, I deeply regret comments I apparently made in an Oval Office conversation with President Nixon … some 30 years ago. … They do not reflect my views and I sincerely apologize for any offense caused by the remarks.”^[126] According to Newsweek magazine, “[T]he shock of the revelation was magnified because of Graham’s longtime support of Israel and his refusal to join in calls for conversion of the Jews.”^[125]

In 2009, more Nixon tapes were released, in which Graham is heard in a 1973 conversation with Nixon referring to a group of Jewish journalists and “the synagogue of Satan“. A spokesman for Graham said that Graham has never been an antisemite and that the comparison (in accord with the context of the quotation in the Book of Revelation^[127]) was directed specifically at those claiming to be Jews, but not holding to traditional Jewish values.^[128]

Ecumenism[edit source]

After a 1957 crusade in New York, some more fundamentalist Protestant Christians criticized Graham for his ecumenism, even calling him “Antichrist“.^[129]

Graham expressed inclusivist views, suggesting that people without explicit faith in Jesus can be saved. In a 1997 interview with Robert Schuller, Graham said

I think that everybody that loves or knows Christ, whether they are conscious of it or not, they are members of the body of Christ … [God] is calling people out of the world for his name, whether they come from the Muslim world, or the Buddhist world or the non-believing world, they are members of the Body of Christ because they have been called by God. They may not know the name of Jesus but they know in their hearts that they need something they do not have, and they turn to the only light they have, and I think that they are saved and they are going to be with us in heaven.^[130]

Iain Murray, writing from a conservative Protestant standpoint, argues that “Graham’s concessions are sad words from one who once spoke on the basis of biblical certainties.”^[131]Further information: Anonymous Christian

Views on women[edit source]

In 1970, Graham stated that feminism was “an echo of our overall philosophy of permissiveness” and that women did not want to be “competitive juggernauts pitted against male chauvinists”.^[132][133] He further stated that the role of wife, mother, and homemaker was the destiny of “real womanhood” according to the Judeo-Christian ethic. Graham’s assertions, published in the Ladies’ Home Journal, elicited letters of protest, and were offered as rebuttal to the establishment of “The New Feminism” section of the publication added following a sit-in protest at the Journal offices demanding female representation on the staff of the publication.^{[134][135][136][137]}

Graham’s daughter Bunny recounted her father denying her and her sisters higher education. As reported in The Washington Post:^[138]

Bunny remembers being groomed for the life of wife, homemaker, and mother. “There was never an idea of a career for us”, she said. “I wanted to go to nursing school – Wheaton had a five-year program – but Daddy said no. No reason, no explanation, just ‘No.’ It wasn’t confrontational and he wasn’t angry, but when he decided, that was the end of it.” She added, “He has forgotten that. Mother has not.”

Nevertheless, Graham’s daughter Anne has long been an active Christian minister who leads a Christian ministry organization known as AnGeL Ministries.^[139] Anne’s website even claims that her father called her “the best preacher in the family”.^[139]

Graham talked his future wife, Ruth, into abandoning her ambition to evangelize in Tibet in favor of staying in the United States to marry him – and that to do otherwise would be “to thwart God’s obvious will”.^[138] After Ruth agreed to marry him, Graham cited the Bible for claiming authority over her, saying, “then I’ll do the leading and you do the following”.^[138] Despite Graham’s public views on womanhood, it has been acknowledged that Ruth still remained active in Christian ministry after they married, often teaching Sunday School.^[140] In addition to his two sons, all three of Graham’s daughters would become Christian ministers as well.^[141]

Views on homosexuality[edit source]

Graham regarded homosexuality as a sin, and in 1974 described it as “a sinister form of perversion”.^[142][143] In 1993 he said that he thought AIDS might be a “judgment” from God, but two weeks later he retracted the remark, saying, “I don’t believe that, and I don’t know why I said it.”^[144] Graham opposed same-sex marriage,^[145] and in 2012 he took out full-page ads in favor of North Carolina Amendment 1 which banned it in North Carolina.^[146][147] Graham’s stated position was that he did not want to talk about homosexuality as a political issue.^[144] Corky Siemaszko, writing for NBC News, noted that after the 1993 incident, Graham “largely steered clear of the subject”.^[148] However, Graham appeared to take a more tolerant approach to the issue of homosexuality when he appeared on the May 2, 1997, episode of 20/20, stating “I think that the Bible teaches that homosexuality is a sin, but the Bible also teaches that pride is a sin, jealously is a sin, and hate is a sin, evil thoughts are a sin, and so I don’t think that homosexuality should be chosen as the overwhelming sin that we are doing today.”^[149] After his death, commentators, such as Douglas Robertson writing for The Independent, called Graham “homophobic“.^[150]

Awards and honors[edit source]

Graham was frequently honored by surveys, including “Greatest Living American” and consistently ranked among the most admired persons in the United States and the world.^[46] He appeared most frequently on Gallup‘s list of most admired people.^[151] On the day of his death, Graham had been on Gallup’s Top 10 “Most Admired Man” list 61 times, and held the highest rank of any person since the list began in 1948.^[14]

In 1967, he was the first Protestant to receive an honorary degree from Belmont Abbey College, a Roman Catholic school.^[152]

In 1983, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by US President Ronald Reagan.^[153]

Graham received the Big Brother of the Year Award for his work on behalf of children. He was cited by the George Washington Carver Memorial Institute for his contributions to race relations. He received the Templeton Foundation Prize for Progress in Religion and the Sylvanus Thayer Award for his commitment to “Duty, Honor, Country”. The “Billy Graham Children’s Health Center” in Asheville is named after and funded by Graham.^[154]

In 1999, the Gospel Music Association inducted Graham into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame to recognize his contributions to Christian music artists such as Michael W. Smith, dc Talk, Amy Grant, Jars of Clay and others who performed at the Billy Graham Crusades.^[155] Graham was the first non-musician inducted,^[156] and had also helped to revitalize interest in hymns and create new favorite songs.^[157] Singer Michael W. Smith was active in Billy Graham Crusades as well as Samaritan’s Purse.^[158] Smith sang “Just As I Am” in a tribute to Graham at the 44th GMA Dove Awards.^[159] He also sang it at the memorial service honoring Graham at the United States Capitol rotunda on February 28, 2018.^[160][161]

In 2000, former First Lady Nancy Reagan presented the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award to Graham. Graham was a friend of the Reagans for years.^[162]

In 2001, Queen Elizabeth II awarded him an honorary knighthood. The honor was presented to him by Sir Christopher Meyer, British Ambassador to the US at the British Embassy in Washington DC on December 6, 2001.^[163]

A professorial chair is named after him at the Alabama Baptist-affiliated Samford University, the Billy Graham Professor of Evangelism and Church Growth.^[122] His alma mater, Wheaton College, has an archive of his papers at the Billy Graham Center.^[10] The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary has the Billy Graham School of Missions, Evangelism and Ministry. Graham received 20 honorary degrees and refused at least that many more.^[46] In San Francisco, California, the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium is sometimes erroneously called the “Billy Graham Civic Auditorium” and incorrectly considered to be named in his honor, but it is actually named after the rock and roll promoter Bill Graham.^[164]

On May 31, 2007, the $27 million Billy Graham Library was officially dedicated in Charlotte. Former presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, and Bill Clinton appeared to celebrate with Graham.^[165] A highway in Charlotte bears Graham’s name,^[86] as does I-240 near Graham’s home in Asheville.

As Graham’s final crusade approached in 2005, his friend Pat Boone chose to create a song in honor of Graham,^[166] which he co-wrote and produced with David Pack and Billy Dean,^[167] who digitally combined studio recordings of various artists into what has been called a “‘We Are the World‘-type” production.^[168] Named “Thank You Billy Graham”, the song’s video^[169] was introduced by Bono,^[168] and included Faith Hill, MxPx,^[166] John Ford Coley, John Elefante, Mike Herrera, Michael McDonald, Jeffrey Osborne, LeAnn Rimes, Kenny Rogers, Connie Smith, Michael Tait and other singers, with brief narration by Larry King,^[170] and was directed by Brian Lockwood^[171] as a tribute album.^[172] In 2013, the album My Hope: Songs Inspired by the Message and Mission of Billy Graham was recorded by Amy Grant, Kari Jobe, Newsboys, Matthew West, tobyMac and other music artists with new songs to honor Graham during his My Hope America with Billy Graham outreach and the publication of his book The Reason for My Hope: Salvation.^[173] Other songs written to honor Graham include “Hero of the Faith” written by Eddie Carswell of NewSong, which became a hit,^[174] “Billy, You’re My Hero” by Greg Hitchcock,^[175] “Billy Graham” by The Swirling Eddies, “Billy Graham’s Bible” by Joe Nichols, “Billy Frank” by Randy Stonehill, and an original song titled “Just as I Am” by Fernando Ortega.^[166]

The movie Billy: The Early Years officially premiered in theaters on October 10, 2008, less than one month before Graham’s 90th birthday.^[176] Graham did not comment on the film, but his son Franklin released a critical statement on August 18, 2008, noting that the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association “has not collaborated with nor does it endorse the movie”.^[177] Graham’s eldest daughter, Gigi, praised the film and was hired as a consultant to help promote it.^[178]

Other honors[edit source]

1996 Congressional Gold Medal shows Ruth and Billy Graham in profile (obverse); the Ruth and Billy Graham Children’s Health Center in Asheville, North Carolina (reverse).

• The Salvation Army‘s Distinguished Service Medal^[179]
• Who’s Who in America listing annually since 1954^[180]
• Freedoms Foundation Distinguished Persons Award (several years)^[181][182]
• Gold Medal Award, National Institute of Social Science, New York, 1957^[182]
• Annual Gutenberg Award of the Chicago Bible Society, 1962^[183]
• Gold Award of the George Washington Carver Memorial Institute, 1964, for contribution to race relations, presented by Senator Javits (NY)^[184]
• Speaker of the Year Award, awarded by Delta Sigma Rho-Tau Kappa Alpha, 1965^[185]
• The American Academy of Achievement‘s Golden Plate Award, 1965^[186]
• Horatio Alger Award, 1965^[184]
• National Citizenship Award by the Military Chaplains Association of the United States of America, 1965^[179]
• Wisdom Award of Honor, 1965^[187]
• The Torch of Liberty Plaque by the Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith, 1969^[185]
• George Washington Honor Medal from Freedoms Foundation of Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, for his sermon “The Violent Society”, 1969 (also in 1974)^[179]
• Honored by Morality in Media for “fostering the principles of truth, taste, inspiration and love in media”, 1969^[179]
• International Brotherhood Award from the National Conference of Christians and Jews, 1971^[188]
• Distinguished Service Award from the National Association of Broadcasters, 1972^[189]
• Franciscan International Award, 1972^[184]
• Sylvanus Thayer Award from United States Military Academy Association of Graduates at West Point (The most prestigious award the United States Military Academy gives to a US citizen), 1972^[182]
• Direct Selling Association‘s Salesman of the Decade award, 1975^[185]
• Philip Award from the Association of United Methodist Evangelists, 1976^[190]
• American Jewish Committee‘s First National Interreligious Award, 1977^[191]
• Southern Baptist Radio and Television Commission‘s Distinguished Communications Medal, 1977^[179]
• Jabotinsky Centennial Medal presented by The Jabotinsky Foundation, 1980^[182]
• Religious Broadcasting Hall of Fame award, 1981^[192]
• Templeton Foundation Prize for Progress in Religion award, 1982^[184]
• Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civilian award, 1983^[192]
• National Religious Broadcasters Award of Merit, 1986^[192]
• North Carolina Award in Public Service, 1986^[193]
• Good Housekeeping Most Admired Men Poll,^[193] 1997, No. 1 for five years in a row and 16th time in top 10^[180]
• Congressional Gold Medal (along with wife Ruth), highest honor Congress can bestow on a private citizen, 1996^[194]
• Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation Freedom Award, for monumental and lasting contributions to the cause of freedom, 2000^[195]
• Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE)^[192] for his international contribution to civic and religious life over 60 years, 2001^[196]
• Many honorary degrees including University of Northwestern – St. Paul, Minnesota, where Graham was once president, named its newest campus building the Billy Graham Community Life Commons.^[197] He also received honorary Doctor of Divinity degrees.^[198][199]

Media portrayals[edit source]

• Unbroken: Path to Redemption (2018): Played by his grandson Will Graham.
• The Crown (2016 – present): Netflix series, Season 2 Episode 6. Played by actor Paul Sparks.^[200]
• Billy: The Early Years (2008): Played by actor Armie Hammer.^[201]
• Man in the 5th Dimension (1964): short biographical film featuring Graham.

Works[edit source]

Graham’s My Answer advice column appeared in newspapers for more than 60 years as of 2017.^[202]

Books[edit source]

Graham authored the following books;^[203] many of which have become bestsellers. In the 1970s, for instance, The Jesus Generation sold 200,000 copies in the first two weeks after its publication; Angels: God’s Secret Agents had sales of a million copies within 90 days after release; How to Be Born Again was said to have made publishing history with its first printing of 800,000 copies.”^[46]

• Calling Youth to Christ (1947)
• America’s Hour of Decision (1951)
• I Saw Your Sons at War (1953)
• Peace with God (1953, 1984)
• Freedom from the Seven Deadly Sins (1955)
• The Secret of Happiness (1955, 1985)
• Billy Graham Talks to Teenagers (1958)
• My Answer (1960)
• Billy Graham Answers Your Questions (1960)
• World Aflame (1965)
• The Challenge (1969)
• The Jesus Generation (1971)
• Angels: God’s Secret Agents (1975, 1985)
• How to Be Born Again (1977)
• The Holy Spirit (1978)
• Evangelist to the World (1979)
• Till Armageddon (1981)
• Approaching Hoofbeats (1983)
• A Biblical Standard for Evangelists (1984)
• Unto the Hills (1986)
• Facing Death and the Life After (1987)
• Answers to Life’s Problems (1988)
• Hope for the Troubled Heart (1991)
• Storm Warning (1992)
• Just As I Am: The Autobiography of Billy Graham (1997, 2007)
• Hope for Each Day (2002)
• The Key to Personal Peace (2003)
• Living in God’s Love: The New York Crusade (2005)
• The Journey: How to Live by Faith in an Uncertain World (2006)
• Wisdom for Each Day (2008)
• Nearing Home: Life, Faith, and Finishing Well (2011)
• The Heaven Answer Book (2012)
• The Reason for My Hope: Salvation (2013)^[204]
• Where I Am: Heaven, Eternity, and Our Life Beyond the Now (2015)^[205]

Personal life[edit source]

On August 13, 1943, Graham married Wheaton classmate Ruth Bell, whose parents were Presbyterian missionaries in China.^[206] Her father, L. Nelson Bell, was a general surgeon.^[46] Ruth died on June 14, 2007, at the age of 87.^[207] The couple were married for almost 64 years.^[208]Billy Graham and his wife in Oslo, Norway, 1955.

Graham and his wife had five children together.^[209] Virginia Leftwich (Gigi) Graham (b. 1945), an inspirational speaker and author; Anne Graham Lotz (b. 1948), runs AnGeL ministries; Ruth Graham (b. 1950), founder and president of Ruth Graham & Friends, leads conferences throughout the US and Canada; Franklin Graham (b. 1952), serves as president and CEO of the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association and as president and CEO of international relief organization, Samaritan’s Purse; and Nelson Edman Graham (b. 1958), a pastor who runs East Gates Ministries International,^[210] which distributes Christian literature in China.

At the time of his death at age 99 in 2018, Graham was survived by 5 children, 19 grandchildren (including Will Graham and Tullian Tchividjian), 41 great-grandchildren and 6 great-great-grandchildren.^[211]

Death[edit source]

Ceremony to the Reverend Billy Graham at the Capitol Rotunda, February 28, 2018.

Graham died of natural causes on February 21, 2018, at his home in Montreat, North Carolina, at the age of 99.^[212][213]

External video
Capitol Visitation for Billy Graham, February 28, 2018, C-SPAN
Funeral Service, Billy Graham Library, Charlotte, North Carolina, March 2, 2018, C-SPAN

On February 28 and March 1, 2018, Graham became the fourth private citizen in United States history to lie in honor at the United States Capitol rotunda in Washington, D.C.^[214][215] He is the first religious leader to be so honored. At the ceremony, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell and Speaker of the House Paul Ryan called Graham “America’s pastor”. President Donald Trump said Graham was “an ambassador for Christ”.^[161] In addition, Televangelist Jim Bakker paid respect to Graham, stating he was the greatest preacher since Jesus. He also said that Graham visited him in prison.^[216][217]

A private funeral service was held on March 2, 2018. Graham was buried beside his wife at the foot of the cross-shaped brick walkway in the Prayer Garden on the northeast side of the Billy Graham Library.^[218] Graham’s pine plywood casket, handcrafted in 2006 by convicted murderers at the Louisiana State Penitentiary, is topped with a wooden cross nailed to it by the prisoners.^[219][220]

He is honored with a commemoration on the liturgical calendar of the Anglican Church in North America on February 21.^[221]

References[edit source]

1. ^ “Indepth: Billy Graham”. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on January 19, 2011. Retrieved December 1, 2011.
2. ^ Billy Graham: American Pilgrim. Oxford University Press. June 26, 2017. ISBN 9780190683528. Retrieved February 21, 2018. Billy Graham stands among the most influential Christian leaders of the twentieth century.
3. ^ Swank jr, J. Grant. “Billy Graham Classics Span 25 Years of Gospel Preaching for the Masses”. TBN. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
4. ^ Ellis, Carl. “Preaching Redemption Amidst Racism: Remembering Billy Graham”. Christianity Today. Retrieved March 3, 2018.
5. ^ “Media: Bios – William (Billy) F. Graham”. Billy Graham Evangelistic Association. Archived from the original on January 31, 2007.
6. ^ “Billy Graham: Pastor to Presidents”. Billy Graham Evangelistic Association. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
7. ^ Aikman 2010, p. 203.
8. ^ “The Transition; Billy Graham to lead Prayers”. The New York Times. December 9, 1992. Retrieved December 24, 2007.
9. ^ “Dr. Robert H. Schuller”. Crystal Cathedral Ministries. Archived from the original on October 16, 2012. Retrieved November 3, 2012.
10. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f} Horstmann, Barry M. (June 27, 2002). “Man with a mission”. Cincinnati Post. Archived from the original on December 3, 2008. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
11. ^ Killen, Patricia O’Connell; Silk, Mark. Religion and Public Life in the Pacific Northwest: The None Zone. Rowman Altamira. p. 84. In the 1957 revival in New York City Graham partnered with mainline Protestant denominations and insisted that those who were converted at the revivals return to their mainline churches.
12. ^ Wacker, Grant (November 15, 2003). “The Billy pulpit: Graham’s career in the mainline”. The Christian Century. Retrieved March 1, 2018. Crusade counselors are instructed to return the favor by sending “inquirers” back to mainline churches when requested.
13. ^ Sweeney, Jon M. (February 21, 2018). “How Billy Graham shaped American Catholicism”. America. Retrieved April 2, 2018. A few years later, in 1964, Cardinal Richard Cushing of Boston (who, as archbishop, had even endorsed a Graham crusade in Boston in 1950) met with Mr. Graham upon returning from Rome and the Second Vatican Council, declaring before a national television audience that Mr. Graham’s message was good for Catholics.
14. ^ Jump up to:^a b Newport, Frank. “In the News: Billy Graham on ‘Most Admired’ List 61 Times”. Gallup. February 21, 2018. Retrieved March 2, 2018.
15. ^ Wacker 2014, pp. 24–25.
16. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} Bruns, Roger (2004). “A Farm Boy Becomes a Preacher”. Billy Graham: A Biography. Greenwood biographies. Greenwood Press. pp. 5–14. ISBN 978-0-313-32718-6.
17. ^ “Billy Graham’s Mother Dies”. The New York Times Archives. August 16, 1981.
18. ^ “Billy Graham’s Childhood Home”. Billygrahamlibrary.org. September 22, 2015. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
19. ^ David George Mullan, Narratives of the Religious Self in Early-Modern Scotland, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2010, p. 27
20. ^ “They Call Me Mother Graham Morrow Coffey Graham”. ccel.us. Archived from the original on September 23, 2015. Retrieved June 23, 2015.
21. ^ “Billy Graham Trivia What Did Billy Graham Read as a Child”. billygraham.org. August 10, 2015. Retrieved October 10, 2015.
22. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f g h i j k l} Gibbs, Nancy; Ostling, Richard N. (November 15, 1993). “God’s Billy Pulpit”. Time. Archived from the original on June 21, 2007. Retrieved November 7, 2011.
23. ^ “Who led Billy Graham to Christ…” Archives, Billy Graham Center, Wheaton College. Archived from the original on May 13, 2011. Retrieved May 12, 2011.
24. ^ “An Interview with Reverend Billy Graham”. The Charlotte Mecklenburg Story. Charlotte Mecklenburg Library. Archived from the original on October 21, 2015. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
25. ^ The institute is now Trinity College of Florida in New Port Richey, Florida
26. ^ Kirkland, Gary (June 25, 2005). “Graham’s first-ever sermon? Near Palatka”. Gainesville Sun. Retrieved February 21, 2018.
27. ^ “Profile: William (Billy) F. Graham, Jr., Evangelist and Chairman of the Board”. billygraham.org/. Charlotte, NC: Billy Graham Evangelistic Association. Retrieved October 10, 2017.
28. ^ Bill Adler, Ask Billy Graham: The World’s Best-Loved Preacher Answers Your Most Important Questions, Thomas Nelson Inc, USA, 2010, p. VIII
29. ^ Beau Zimmer, Rev. Billy Graham attended Bible College in Temple Terrace, wtsp.com, USA, February 21, 2018
30. ^ “Billy Graham’s California Dream”. californiality.com. Retrieved August 14, 2012.^{[permanent dead link]}
31. ^ “The Tree Stump Prayer: When Billy Graham Overcame Doubt”. Billy Graham Evangelistic Association.
32. ^ Whalin, Terry (2014). Billy Graham A Biography of America’s Greatest Evangelist. Morgan James Publishing. pp. 32–33. ISBN 9781630472313.
33. ^ Laurie, Greg (2021). Billy Graham The Man I Knew. Salem Books. pp. 115–117. ISBN 9781684510597.
34. ^ “Wheaton College Alumnus Billy Graham: 1918-2018”. Wheaton.edu. February 21, 2018. Retrieved March 1, 2018.
35. ^ Seth Dowland, The “Modesto Manifesto”, christianhistoryinstitute.org, USA, #111, 2014
36. ^ Taylor, Justin (March 20, 2017). “Where Did the ‘Billy Graham Rule’ Come From?”. The Gospel Coalition. Retrieved April 2, 2017.
37. ^ Yonat Shimron, Billy Graham made sure his integrity was never in question, religionnews.com, USA, February 23, 2018
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39. ^ Farewell to God: My Reasons for Rejecting the Christian Faith.^{[page needed]}
40. ^ King, Randall E. (1997). “When Worlds Collide: Politics, Religion, and Media at the 1970 East Tennessee Billy Graham Crusade”. Journal of Church and State. 39 (2): 273–95. doi:10.1093/jcs/39.2.273. JSTOR 23919865.
41. ^ William Martin, “The Riptide of Revival”, Christian History and Biography (2006), Issue 92, pp. 24–29, online
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48. ^ “William Borden: No Reserves. No Retreats. No Regrets”. Home.snu.edu. Retrieved February 21, 2013.
49. ^ For Christ and the University: The Story of InterVarsity Christian Fellowship of the USA – 1940–1990 by Keith Hunt and Gladys Hunt, InterVarsity Press, 1991.^{[page needed]}
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92. ^ Funk, Tim (February 21, 2018). “The Presidents’ preacher: From Truman to Trump”. The Charlotte Observer. Retrieved February 22, 2018.
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105. ^ Miller, Merle (1974). Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman. New York: Putnam. p. 363.
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119. ^ Alexander Cockburn (September 2, 2005). “The plan to kill a million people”. Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved June 7, 2020.
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129. ^ Wirt, Sherwood Eliot (1997). Billy: A Personal Look at Billy Graham, the World’s Best-loved Evangelist. Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway Books. p. 97. ISBN 0-89107-934-3.
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134. ^ “Feminist Chronicles – 1970”. Feminist Majority Foundation. Retrieved May 19, 2015.
135. ^ Dow, Bonnie J. (2014). Watching Women’s Liberation, 1970: Feminism’s Pivotal Year on the Network News. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-252-09648-8.
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137. ^ Marshall, Ellen Ott (2008). “A Matter of Pride, A Feminist Response”. In Long, Michael G. (ed.). The Legacy of Billy Graham: Critical Reflections on America’s Greatest Evangelist. pp. 79–91. ISBN 978-0-664-23656-4.
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Literature[edit source]

• Aikman, David (2007). Billy Graham: His Life and Influence. Nashville: Thomas Nelson. ASIN B008JM5FE2. short biography
  • Aikman, David (2010). “Lyndon B. Johnson”. Billy Graham: His Life and Influence. ISBN 978-1-4185-8432-0. 2010 edition
• Long, Michael G., ed. (2008). The Legacy of Billy Graham: Critical Reflections on America’s Greatest Evangelist. ASIN B002LE87N0. scholarly essays
• Miller, Steven P. (2009). Billy Graham and the Rise of the Republican South. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4151-8.
• Schier, H. Edward (2013). “Civil Rights Movement”. The Battle of the Three Wills: As It Relates to Good & Evil. ISBN 978-1-4817-5876-5.

Further reading[edit source]

• Allison, Lon (2018) [2018]. Billy Graham: An Ordinary Man and His Extraordinary God. Paraclete Press. ISBN 978-1-64060-087-4.
• Bruns, Roger (2004). Billy Graham: A Biography. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-3133-2718-6.
• Finstuen, Andrew, et al., eds. Billy Graham: American Pilgrim (Oxford UP, 2017) 326 pp. essays by scholars
• Himes, A. (2011). Sword of the Lord: the roots of fundamentalism in an American family Seattle: Chiara Press.
• King, Randall E. (1997). “When Worlds Collide: Politics, Religion, and Media at the 1970 East Tennessee Billy Graham Crusade”. Journal of Church and State. 39 (2): 273–95. doi:10.1093/jcs/39.2.273.
• Laurie, Greg (2021). Billy Graham The Man I Knew. Salem Books. pp. 115–117. ISBN 9781684510597.
• Martin, William (2007). A Prophet with Honor: The Billy Graham Story. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-24198-0. scholarly biography, updated from 1991 edition published by William Morrow.
• Martin, William (2013). Prophet with Honor: The Billy Graham Story. Grand Rapids: Zonderkidz. ASIN B004HOV0CW. Middle-school version.
• Pollock, John (1979). Billy Graham: Evangelist to the World. ISBN 0060666919.
• Sherwood, Timothy H. (2013). The Rhetorical Leadership of Fulton J. Sheen, Norman Vincent Peale, and Billy Graham in the Age of Extremes. Lexington Books. pp. 1–158. ASIN B00E1CYKCC.
• Strober, Deborah Hart; Strober, Gerald S. (2006). Billy Graham: A Narrative and Oral Biography. Jossey-Bass. ISBN 978-0-78-79-8401-4.
• Wacker, Grant (2009). “Billy Graham’s America”. Church History. 78 (3): 489–511. doi:10.1017/S0009640709990400. S2CID 162380291.
• Wacker, Grant (2014) [2006]. America’s Pastor: Billy Graham and the Shaping of a Nation. Harvard University Press. Jossey-Bass. ISBN 978-0-674-05218-5.
• Whalin, Terry (2014). Billy Graham A Biography of America’s Greatest Evangelist. Morgan James Publishing. pp. 32–33. ISBN 9781630472313.

External links

Martin Luther OSA (/ˈluːθər/;^[1] German: [ˈmaʁtiːn ˈlʊtɐ] (listen); 10 November 1483^[2] – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, composer, former Augustinian friar,^[3] and is best known as a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation and as the namesake of Lutheranism.

Luther was ordained to the priesthood in 1507. He came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church; in particular, he disputed the view on indulgences. Luther proposed an academic discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His refusal to renounce all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Holy Roman Emperor.

Luther taught that salvation and, consequently, eternal life are not earned by good deeds but are received only as the free gift of God’s grace through the believer’s faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin. His theology challenged the authority and office of the pope by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge,^[4] and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood.^[5] Those who identify with these, and all of Luther’s wider teachings, are called Lutherans, though Luther insisted on Christian or Evangelical (German: evangelisch) as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ.

His translation of the Bible into the German vernacular (instead of Latin) made it more accessible to the laity, an event that had a tremendous impact on both the church and German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation,^[6] and influenced the writing of an English translation, the Tyndale Bible.^[7] His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches.^[8] His marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry.^[9]

In two of his later works, Luther expressed antagonistic, violent views towards Jews and called for the burnings of their synagogues and their expulsion.^[10] His rhetoric was not directed at Jews alone but also towards Roman Catholics, Anabaptists, and nontrinitarian Christians.^[11] Luther died in 1546 with Pope Leo X’s excommunication still in effect.

Contents

• 1Early life
  • 1.1Birth and education
  • 1.2Monastic life
• 2Start of the Reformation
  • 2.1Justification by faith alone
  • 2.2Breach with the papacy
  • 2.3Excommunication
• 3Diet of Worms
• 4At Wartburg Castle
• 5Return to Wittenberg and Peasants’ War
• 6Marriage
• 7Organising the church
  • 7.1Catechisms
• 8Translation of the Bible
• 9Hymnodist
• 10On the soul after death
• 11Sacramentarian controversy and the Marburg Colloquy
• 12Epistemology
• 13On Islam
• 14Antinomian controversy
• 15Bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse
• 16Antisemitism
• 17Final years, illness and death
• 18Legacy and commemoration
• 19Luther and the swan
• 20Works and editions
• 21See also
• 22References
• 23Notes
• 24Sources
• 25Further reading
• 26External links

Early life[edit source]

Birth and education[edit source]

Portraits of Hans and Margarethe Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1527Former monks’ dormitory, St Augustine’s Monastery, Erfurt

Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder (or Ludher, later Luther)^[12] and his wife Margarethe (née Lindemann) on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, County of Mansfeld in the Holy Roman Empire. Luther was baptized the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours. His family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters^[13] and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council; in 1492 he was elected as a town councilor.^[14][12] The religious scholar Martin Marty describes Luther’s mother as a hard-working woman of “trading-class stock and middling means”, contrary to Luther’s enemies, who labeled her a whore and bath attendant.^[12]

He had several brothers and sisters and is known to have been close to one of them, Jacob.^[15]

Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, and Eisenach in 1498.^[16] The three schools focused on the so-called “trivium“: grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell.^[17]

In 1501, at age 17, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse.^[18] He was made to wake at four every morning for what has been described as “a day of rote learning and often wearying spiritual exercises.”^[18] He received his master’s degree in 1505.^[19]Luther as a friar, with tonsureLuther’s accommodation in Wittenberg

In accordance with his father’s wishes, he enrolled in law but dropped out almost immediately, believing that law represented uncertainty.^[19] Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, and Gabriel Biel.^[19] He was deeply influenced by two tutors, Bartholomaeus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers^[19] and to test everything himself by experience.^[20]

Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, and he thereafter developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over the latter’s emphasis on reason.^[20] For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed, and Scripture therefore became increasingly important to him.^[20]

On 2 July 1505, while Luther was returning to university on horseback after a trip home, a lightning bolt struck near him during a thunderstorm. Later telling his father he was terrified of death and divine judgment, he cried out, “Help! Saint Anna, I will become a monk!”^[21][22] He came to view his cry for help as a vow he could never break. He left university, sold his books, and entered St. Augustine’s Monastery in Erfurt on 17 July 1505.^[23] One friend blamed the decision on Luther’s sadness over the deaths of two friends. Luther himself seemed saddened by the move. Those who attended a farewell supper walked him to the door of the Black Cloister. “This day you see me, and then, not ever again,” he said.^[20] His father was furious over what he saw as a waste of Luther’s education.^[24]

Monastic life[edit source]

A posthumous portrait of Luther as an Augustinian friar

Luther dedicated himself to the Augustinian order, devoting himself to fasting, long hours in prayer, pilgrimage, and frequent confession.^[25] Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, “I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailer and hangman of my poor soul.”^[26]

Johann von Staupitz, his superior, concluded that Luther needed more work to distract him from excessive introspection and ordered him to pursue an academic career. On 3 April 1507, Jerome Schultz (lat. Hieronymus Scultetus), the Bishop of Brandenburg, ordained Luther in Erfurt Cathedral. In 1508, he began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg.^[27] He received a bachelor’s degree in biblical studies on 9 March 1508 and another bachelor’s degree in the Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509.^[28] On 19 October 1512, he was awarded his Doctor of Theology and, on 21 October 1512, was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg,^[29] having succeeded von Staupitz as chair of theology.^[30] He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg.

He was made provincial vicar of Saxony and Thuringia by his religious order in 1515. This meant he was to visit and oversee each of eleven monasteries in his province.^[31]

Start of the Reformation[edit source]

Further information: History of Protestantism and History of LutheranismLuther’s theses are engraved into the door of All Saints’ Church, Wittenberg. The Latin inscription above informs the reader that the original door was destroyed by a fire, and that in 1857, King Frederick William IV of Prussia ordered a replacement be made.

In 1516, Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money in order to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.^[32] Tetzel’s experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by Albrecht von Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, who, deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of benefices, had to contribute the considerable sum of ten thousand ducats^[33] toward the rebuilding of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Albrecht obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (i.e., remission of the temporal punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht was to claim to pay the fees of his benefices.

On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to his bishop, Albrecht von Brandenburg, protesting against the sale of indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his “Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences”,^[a] which came to be known as the Ninety-five Theses. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of confronting the church but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the tone of the writing is accordingly “searching, rather than doctrinaire.”^[35] Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: “Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?”^[35]The Catholic sale of indulgences shown in A Question to a Mintmaker, woodcut by Jörg Breu the Elder of Augsburg, c. 1530

Luther objected to a saying attributed to Tetzel that “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory (also attested as ‘into heaven’) springs.”^[36] He insisted that, since forgiveness was God’s alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.

According to one account, Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses to the door of All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg on 31 October 1517. Scholars Walter Krämer, Götz Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter, and Gerhard Prause contend that the story of the posting on the door, even though it has settled as one of the pillars of history, has little foundation in truth.^{[37][38][39][40]} The story is based on comments made by Luther’s collaborator Philip Melanchthon, though it is thought that he was not in Wittenberg at the time.^[41] According to Roland Bainton, on the other hand, it is true.^[42]

The Latin Theses were printed in several locations in Germany in 1517. In January 1518 friends of Luther translated the Ninety-five Theses from Latin into German.^[43] Within two weeks, copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany. Luther’s writings circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519. Students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther speak. He published a short commentary on Galatians and his Work on the Psalms. This early part of Luther’s career was one of his most creative and productive.^[44] Three of his best-known works were published in 1520: To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On the Freedom of a Christian.

Justification by faith alone[edit source]

Main article: Sola fideLuther at Erfurt, which depicts Martin Luther discovering the doctrine of sola fide (by faith alone). Painting by Joseph Noel Paton, 1861.

From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, and on the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as penance and righteousness by the Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt in its ways and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity. The most important for Luther was the doctrine of justification—God’s act of declaring a sinner righteous—by faith alone through God’s grace. He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of God’s grace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as the Messiah.^[45] “This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification”, he writes, “is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness.”^[46]

Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. This teaching by Luther was clearly expressed in his 1525 publication On the Bondage of the Will, which was written in response to On Free Will by Desiderius Erasmus (1524). Luther based his position on predestination on St. Paul’s epistle to the Ephesians 2:8–10. Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed in cooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually is the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith.^[47]

“That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law,” he writes. “Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the merits of Christ.”^[48] Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God; the experience of being justified by faith was “as though I had been born again.” His entry into Paradise, no less, was a discovery about “the righteousness of God”—a discovery that “the just person” of whom the Bible speaks (as in Romans 1:17) lives by faith.^[49] He explains his concept of “justification” in the Smalcald Articles:

The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24–25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah 53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23–25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us … Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (Mark 13:31).^[50]

Breach with the papacy[edit source]

Pope Leo X‘s Bull against the errors of Martin Luther, 1521, commonly known as Exsurge Domine

Archbishop Albrecht did not reply to Luther’s letter containing the Ninety-five Theses. He had the theses checked for heresy and in December 1517 forwarded them to Rome.^[51] He needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation for his tenure of more than one bishopric. As Luther later notes, “the pope had a finger in the pie as well, because one half was to go to the building of St. Peter’s Church in Rome”.^[52]

Pope Leo X was used to reformers and heretics,^[53] and he responded slowly, “with great care as is proper.”^[54] Over the next three years he deployed a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther, which served only to harden the reformer’s anti-papal theology. First, the Dominican theologian Sylvester Mazzolini drafted a heresy case against Luther, whom Leo then summoned to Rome. The Elector Frederick persuaded the pope to have Luther examined at Augsburg, where the Imperial Diet was held.^[55] Over a three-day period in October 1518, Luther defended himself under questioning by papal legate Cardinal Cajetan. The pope’s right to issue indulgences was at the centre of the dispute between the two men.^[56][57] The hearings degenerated into a shouting match. More than writing his theses, Luther’s confrontation with the church cast him as an enemy of the pope: “His Holiness abuses Scripture”, retorted Luther. “I deny that he is above Scripture”.^[58][59] Cajetan’s original instructions had been to arrest Luther if he failed to recant, but the legate desisted from doing so.^[60] With help from the Carmelite monk Christoph Langenmantel, Luther slipped out of the city at night, unbeknownst to Cajetan.^[61]The meeting of Martin Luther (right) and Cardinal Cajetan (left, holding the book)

In January 1519, at Altenburg in Saxony, the papal nuncio Karl von Miltitz adopted a more conciliatory approach. Luther made certain concessions to the Saxon, who was a relative of the Elector and promised to remain silent if his opponents did.^[62] The theologian Johann Eck, however, was determined to expose Luther’s doctrine in a public forum. In June and July 1519, he staged a disputation with Luther’s colleague Andreas Karlstadt at Leipzig and invited Luther to speak.^[63] Luther’s boldest assertion in the debate was that Matthew 16:18 does not confer on popes the exclusive right to interpret scripture, and that therefore neither popes nor church councils were infallible.^[64] For this, Eck branded Luther a new Jan Hus, referring to the Czech reformer and heretic burned at the stake in 1415. From that moment, he devoted himself to Luther’s defeat.^[65]

Excommunication[edit source]

On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the papal bull (edict) Exsurge Domine that he risked excommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the Ninety-five Theses, within 60 days. That autumn, Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns. Von Miltitz attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the pope a copy of On the Freedom of a Christian in October, publicly set fire to the bull and decretals at Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,^[66] an act he defended in Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and Assertions Concerning All Articles. As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem.^[67] And although the Lutheran World Federation, Methodists and the Catholic Church’s Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity agreed (in 1999 and 2006, respectively) on a “common understanding of justification by God’s grace through faith in Christ,” the Catholic Church has never lifted the 1520 excommunication.^[68][69][70]

Diet of Worms[edit source]

Main article: Diet of WormsLuther Before the Diet of Worms by Anton von Werner (1843–1915)

The enforcement of the ban on the Ninety-five Theses fell to the secular authorities. On 18 April 1521, Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of Worms. This was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms, a town on the Rhine. It was conducted from 28 January to 25 May 1521, with Emperor Charles V presiding. Prince Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, obtained a safe conduct for Luther to and from the meeting.

Johann Eck, speaking on behalf of the empire as assistant of the Archbishop of Trier, presented Luther with copies of his writings laid out on a table and asked him if the books were his and whether he stood by their contents. Luther confirmed he was their author but requested time to think about the answer to the second question. He prayed, consulted friends, and gave his response the next day:

Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. May God help me. Amen.^[71]

At the end of this speech, Luther raised his arm “in the traditional salute of a knight winning a bout.” Michael Mullett considers this speech as a “world classic of epoch-making oratory.”^[72]Luther Monument in Worms. His statue is surrounded by the figures of his lay protectors and earlier Church reformers including John Wycliffe, Jan Hus and Girolamo Savonarola.

Eck informed Luther that he was acting like a heretic, saying,

Martin, there is no one of the heresies which have torn the bosom of the church, which has not derived its origin from the various interpretation of the Scripture. The Bible itself is the arsenal whence each innovator has drawn his deceptive arguments. It was with Biblical texts that Pelagius and Arius maintained their doctrines. Arius, for instance, found the negation of the eternity of the Word—an eternity which you admit, in this verse of the New Testament—Joseph knew not his wife till she had brought forth her first-born son; and he said, in the same way that you say, that this passage enchained him. When the fathers of the Council of Constance condemned this proposition of Jan Hus—The church of Jesus Christ is only the community of the elect, they condemned an error; for the church, like a good mother, embraces within her arms all who bear the name of Christian, all who are called to enjoy the celestial beatitude.^[73]

Luther refused to recant his writings. He is sometimes also quoted as saying: “Here I stand. I can do no other”. Recent scholars consider the evidence for these words to be unreliable since they were inserted before “May God help me” only in later versions of the speech and not recorded in witness accounts of the proceedings.^[74] However, Mullett suggests that given his nature, “we are free to believe that Luther would tend to select the more dramatic form of words.”^[72]

Over the next five days, private conferences were held to determine Luther’s fate. The emperor presented the final draft of the Edict of Worms on 25 May 1521, declaring Luther an outlaw, banning his literature, and requiring his arrest: “We want him to be apprehended and punished as a notorious heretic.”^[75] It also made it a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther food or shelter. It permitted anyone to kill Luther without legal consequence.

At Wartburg Castle[edit source]

Wartburg Castle, EisenachThe Wartburg room where Luther translated the New Testament into German. An original first edition is kept in the case on the desk.

Luther’s disappearance during his return to Wittenberg was planned. Frederick III had him intercepted on his way home in the forest near Wittenberg by masked horsemen impersonating highway robbers. They escorted Luther to the security of the Wartburg Castle at Eisenach.^[76] During his stay at Wartburg, which he referred to as “my Patmos“,^[77] Luther translated the New Testament from Greek into German and poured out doctrinal and polemical writings. These included a renewed attack on Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz, whom he shamed into halting the sale of indulgences in his episcopates,^[78] and a Refutation of the Argument of Latomus, in which he expounded the principle of justification to Jacobus Latomus, an orthodox theologian from Louvain.^[79] In this work, one of his most emphatic statements on faith, he argued that every good work designed to attract God’s favor is a sin.^[80] All humans are sinners by nature, he explained, and God’s grace (which cannot be earned) alone can make them just. On 1 August 1521, Luther wrote to Melanchthon on the same theme: “Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides.”^[81]

In the summer of 1521, Luther widened his target from individual pieties like indulgences and pilgrimages to doctrines at the heart of Church practice. In On the Abrogation of the Private Mass, he condemned as idolatry the idea that the mass is a sacrifice, asserting instead that it is a gift, to be received with thanksgiving by the whole congregation.^[82] His essay On Confession, Whether the Pope has the Power to Require It rejected compulsory confession and encouraged private confession and absolution, since “every Christian is a confessor.”^[83] In November, Luther wrote The Judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows. He assured monks and nuns that they could break their vows without sin, because vows were an illegitimate and vain attempt to win salvation.^[84]Luther disguised as “Junker Jörg”, 1521

Luther made his pronouncements from Wartburg in the context of rapid developments at Wittenberg, of which he was kept fully informed. Andreas Karlstadt, supported by the ex-Augustinian Gabriel Zwilling, embarked on a radical programme of reform there in June 1521, exceeding anything envisaged by Luther. The reforms provoked disturbances, including a revolt by the Augustinian friars against their prior, the smashing of statues and images in churches, and denunciations of the magistracy. After secretly visiting Wittenberg in early December 1521, Luther wrote A Sincere Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion.^[85] Wittenberg became even more volatile after Christmas when a band of visionary zealots, the so-called Zwickau prophets, arrived, preaching revolutionary doctrines such as the equality of man,^{[clarification needed]} adult baptism, and Christ’s imminent return.^[86] When the town council asked Luther to return, he decided it was his duty to act.^[87]

Return to Wittenberg and Peasants’ War[edit source]

See also: Radical Reformation and German Peasants’ WarLutherhaus, Luther’s residence in Wittenberg

Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg on 6 March 1522. He wrote to the Elector: “During my absence, Satan has entered my sheepfold, and committed ravages which I cannot repair by writing, but only by my personal presence and living word.”^[88] For eight days in Lent, beginning on Invocavit Sunday, 9 March, Luther preached eight sermons, which became known as the “Invocavit Sermons”. In these sermons, he hammered home the primacy of core Christian values such as love, patience, charity, and freedom, and reminded the citizens to trust God’s word rather than violence to bring about necessary change.^[89]

Do you know what the Devil thinks when he sees men use violence to propagate the gospel? He sits with folded arms behind the fire of hell, and says with malignant looks and frightful grin: “Ah, how wise these madmen are to play my game! Let them go on; I shall reap the benefit. I delight in it.” But when he sees the Word running and contending alone on the battle-field, then he shudders and shakes for fear.^[90]

The effect of Luther’s intervention was immediate. After the sixth sermon, the Wittenberg jurist Jerome Schurf wrote to the elector: “Oh, what joy has Dr. Martin’s return spread among us! His words, through divine mercy, are bringing back every day misguided people into the way of the truth.”^[90]

Luther next set about reversing or modifying the new church practices. By working alongside the authorities to restore public order, he signalled his reinvention as a conservative force within the Reformation.^[91] After banishing the Zwickau prophets, he faced a battle against both the established Church and the radical reformers who threatened the new order by fomenting social unrest and violence.^[92]The Twelve Articles, 1525

Despite his victory in Wittenberg, Luther was unable to stifle radicalism further afield. Preachers such as Thomas Müntzer and Zwickau prophet Nicholas Storch found support amongst poorer townspeople and peasants between 1521 and 1525. There had been revolts by the peasantry on smaller scales since the 15th century.^[93] Luther’s pamphlets against the Church and the hierarchy, often worded with “liberal” phraseology, led many peasants to believe he would support an attack on the upper classes in general.^[94] Revolts broke out in Franconia, Swabia, and Thuringia in 1524, even drawing support from disaffected nobles, many of whom were in debt. Gaining momentum under the leadership of radicals such as Müntzer in Thuringia, and Hipler and Lotzer in the south-west, the revolts turned into war.^[95]

Luther sympathised with some of the peasants’ grievances, as he showed in his response to the Twelve Articles in May 1525, but he reminded the aggrieved to obey the temporal authorities.^[96] During a tour of Thuringia, he became enraged at the widespread burning of convents, monasteries, bishops’ palaces, and libraries. In Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, written on his return to Wittenberg, he gave his interpretation of the Gospel teaching on wealth, condemned the violence as the devil’s work, and called for the nobles to put down the rebels like mad dogs:

Therefore let everyone who can, smite, slay, and stab, secretly or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel … For baptism does not make men free in body and property, but in soul; and the gospel does not make goods common, except in the case of those who, of their own free will, do what the apostles and disciples did in Acts 4 [:32–37]. They did not demand, as do our insane peasants in their raging, that the goods of others—of Pilate and Herod—should be common, but only their own goods. Our peasants, however, want to make the goods of other men common, and keep their own for themselves. Fine Christians they are! I think there is not a devil left in hell; they have all gone into the peasants. Their raving has gone beyond all measure.^[97]

Luther justified his opposition to the rebels on three grounds. First, in choosing violence over lawful submission to the secular government, they were ignoring Christ’s counsel to “Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s”; St. Paul had written in his epistle to the Romans 13:1–7 that all authorities are appointed by God and therefore should not be resisted. This reference from the Bible forms the foundation for the doctrine known as the divine right of kings, or, in the German case, the divine right of the princes. Second, the violent actions of rebelling, robbing, and plundering placed the peasants “outside the law of God and Empire”, so they deserved “death in body and soul, if only as highwaymen and murderers.” Lastly, Luther charged the rebels with blasphemy for calling themselves “Christian brethren” and committing their sinful acts under the banner of the Gospel.^[98] Only later in life did he develop the Beerwolf concept permitting some cases of resistance against the government.^[99]

Without Luther’s backing for the uprising, many rebels laid down their weapons; others felt betrayed. Their defeat by the Swabian League at the Battle of Frankenhausen on 15 May 1525, followed by Müntzer’s execution, brought the revolutionary stage of the Reformation to a close.^[100] Thereafter, radicalism found a refuge in the Anabaptist movement and other religious movements, while Luther’s Reformation flourished under the wing of the secular powers.^[101] In 1526 Luther wrote: “I, Martin Luther, have during the rebellion slain all the peasants, for it was I who ordered them to be struck dead.”^[102]

Marriage[edit source]

Katharina von Bora, Luther’s wife, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1526

Martin Luther married Katharina von Bora, one of 12 nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen Cistercian convent in April 1523, when he arranged for them to be smuggled out in herring barrels.^[103] “Suddenly, and while I was occupied with far different thoughts,” he wrote to Wenceslaus Link, “the Lord has plunged me into marriage.”^[104] At the time of their marriage, Katharina was 26 years old and Luther was 41 years old.Martin Luther at his desk with family portraits (17th century)

On 13 June 1525, the couple was engaged, with Johannes Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, Johannes Apel, Philipp Melanchthon and Lucas Cranach the Elder and his wife as witnesses.^[105] On the evening of the same day, the couple was married by Bugenhagen.^[105] The ceremonial walk to the church and the wedding banquet were left out and were made up two weeks later on 27 June.^[105]

Some priests and former members of religious orders had already married, including Andreas Karlstadt and Justus Jonas, but Luther’s wedding set the seal of approval on clerical marriage.^[106] He had long condemned vows of celibacy on biblical grounds, but his decision to marry surprised many, not least Melanchthon, who called it reckless.^[107] Luther had written to George Spalatin on 30 November 1524, “I shall never take a wife, as I feel at present. Not that I am insensible to my flesh or sex (for I am neither wood nor stone); but my mind is averse to wedlock because I daily expect the death of a heretic.”^[108] Before marrying, Luther had been living on the plainest food, and, as he admitted himself, his mildewed bed was not properly made for months at a time.^[109]

Luther and his wife moved into a former monastery, “The Black Cloister,” a wedding present from Elector John the Steadfast. They embarked on what appears to have been a happy and successful marriage, though money was often short.^[110] Katharina bore six children: Hans – June 1526; Elizabeth – 10 December 1527, who died within a few months; Magdalene – 1529, who died in Luther’s arms in 1542; Martin – 1531; Paul – January 1533; and Margaret – 1534; and she helped the couple earn a living by farming and taking in boarders.^[111] Luther confided to Michael Stiefel on 11 August 1526: “My Katie is in all things so obliging and pleasing to me that I would not exchange my poverty for the riches of Croesus.”^[112]

Organising the church[edit source]

Church orders, Mecklenburg 1650

By 1526, Luther found himself increasingly occupied in organising a new church. His biblical ideal of congregations choosing their own ministers had proved unworkable.^[113] According to Bainton: “Luther’s dilemma was that he wanted both a confessional church based on personal faith and experience and a territorial church including all in a given locality. If he were forced to choose, he would take his stand with the masses, and this was the direction in which he moved.”^[114]

From 1525 to 1529, he established a supervisory church body, laid down a new form of worship service, and wrote a clear summary of the new faith in the form of two catechisms.^[115] To avoid confusing or upsetting the people, Luther avoided extreme change. He also did not wish to replace one controlling system with another. He concentrated on the church in the Electorate of Saxony, acting only as an adviser to churches in new territories, many of which followed his Saxon model. He worked closely with the new elector, John the Steadfast, to whom he turned for secular leadership and funds on behalf of a church largely shorn of its assets and income after the break with Rome.^[116] For Luther’s biographer Martin Brecht, this partnership “was the beginning of a questionable and originally unintended development towards a church government under the temporal sovereign”.^[117]

The elector authorised a visitation of the church, a power formerly exercised by bishops.^[118] At times, Luther’s practical reforms fell short of his earlier radical pronouncements. For example, the Instructions for the Visitors of Parish Pastors in Electoral Saxony (1528), drafted by Melanchthon with Luther’s approval, stressed the role of repentance in the forgiveness of sins, despite Luther’s position that faith alone ensures justification.^[119] The Eisleben reformer Johannes Agricola challenged this compromise, and Luther condemned him for teaching that faith is separate from works.^[120] The Instruction is a problematic document for those seeking a consistent evolution in Luther’s thought and practice.^[121]Lutheran church liturgy and sacraments

In response to demands for a German liturgy, Luther wrote a German Mass, which he published in early 1526.^[122] He did not intend it as a replacement for his 1523 adaptation of the Latin Mass but as an alternative for the “simple people”, a “public stimulation for people to believe and become Christians.”^[123] Luther based his order on the Catholic service but omitted “everything that smacks of sacrifice”, and the Mass became a celebration where everyone received the wine as well as the bread.^[124] He retained the elevation of the host and chalice, while trappings such as the Mass vestments, altar, and candles were made optional, allowing freedom of ceremony.^[125] Some reformers, including followers of Huldrych Zwingli, considered Luther’s service too papistic, and modern scholars note the conservatism of his alternative to the Catholic Mass.^[126] Luther’s service, however, included congregational singing of hymns and psalms in German, as well as parts of the liturgy, including Luther’s unison setting of the Creed.^[127] To reach the simple people and the young, Luther incorporated religious instruction into the weekday services in the form of catechism.^[128] He also provided simplified versions of the baptism and marriage services.^[129]

Luther and his colleagues introduced the new order of worship during their visitation of the Electorate of Saxony, which began in 1527.^[130] They also assessed the standard of pastoral care and Christian education in the territory. “Merciful God, what misery I have seen,” Luther writes, “the common people knowing nothing at all of Christian doctrine … and unfortunately many pastors are well-nigh unskilled and incapable of teaching.”^[131]

Catechisms[edit source]

A stained glass portrayal of Luther

Luther devised the catechism as a method of imparting the basics of Christianity to the congregations. In 1529, he wrote the Large Catechism, a manual for pastors and teachers, as well as a synopsis, the Small Catechism, to be memorised by the people.^[132] The catechisms provided easy-to-understand instructional and devotional material on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles’ Creed, The Lord’s Prayer, baptism, and the Lord’s Supper.^[133] Luther incorporated questions and answers in the catechism so that the basics of Christian faith would not just be learned by rote, “the way monkeys do it”, but understood.^[134]

The catechism is one of Luther’s most personal works. “Regarding the plan to collect my writings in volumes,” he wrote, “I am quite cool and not at all eager about it because, roused by a Saturnian hunger, I would rather see them all devoured. For I acknowledge none of them to be really a book of mine, except perhaps the Bondage of the Will and the Catechism.”^[135] The Small Catechism has earned a reputation as a model of clear religious teaching.^[136] It remains in use today, along with Luther’s hymns and his translation of the Bible.

Luther’s Small Catechism proved especially effective in helping parents teach their children; likewise the Large Catechism was effective for pastors.^[137] Using the German vernacular, they expressed the Apostles’ Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. He rewrote each article of the Creed to express the character of the Father, the Son, or the Holy Spirit. Luther’s goal was to enable the catechumens to see themselves as a personal object of the work of the three persons of the Trinity, each of which works in the catechumen’s life.^[138] That is, Luther depicts the Trinity not as a doctrine to be learned, but as persons to be known. The Father creates, the Son redeems, and the Spirit sanctifies, a divine unity with separate personalities. Salvation originates with the Father and draws the believer to the Father. Luther’s treatment of the Apostles’ Creed must be understood in the context of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) and The Lord’s Prayer, which are also part of the Lutheran catechetical teaching.^[138]

Translation of the Bible[edit source]

Main article: Luther BibleLuther’s 1534 Bible

Luther had published his German translation of the New Testament in 1522, and he and his collaborators completed the translation of the Old Testament in 1534, when the whole Bible was published. He continued to work on refining the translation until the end of his life.^[139] Others had previously translated the Bible into German, but Luther tailored his translation to his own doctrine.^[140] Two of the earlier translations were the Mentelin Bible (1456)^[141] and the Koberger Bible (1484).^[142] There were as many as fourteen in High German, four in Low German, four in Dutch, and various other translations in other languages before the Bible of Luther.^[143]

Luther’s translation used the variant of German spoken at the Saxon chancellery, intelligible to both northern and southern Germans.^[144] He intended his vigorous, direct language to make the Bible accessible to everyday Germans, “for we are removing impediments and difficulties so that other people may read it without hindrance.”^[145] Published at a time of rising demand for German-language publications, Luther’s version quickly became a popular and influential Bible translation. As such, it contributed a distinct flavor to the German language and literature.^[146] Furnished with notes and prefaces by Luther, and with woodcuts by Lucas Cranach that contained anti-papal imagery, it played a major role in the spread of Luther’s doctrine throughout Germany.^[147] The Luther Bible influenced other vernacular translations, such as the Tyndale Bible (from 1525 forward), a precursor of the King James Bible.^[148]

When he was criticised for inserting the word “alone” after “faith” in Romans 3:28,^[149] he replied in part: “[T]he text itself and the meaning of St. Paul urgently require and demand it. For in that very passage he is dealing with the main point of Christian doctrine, namely, that we are justified by faith in Christ without any works of the Law. … But when works are so completely cut away—and that must mean that faith alone justifies—whoever would speak plainly and clearly about this cutting away of works will have to say, ‘Faith alone justifies us, and not works’.”^[150] Luther did not include First Epistle of John 5:7–8,^[151] the Johannine Comma in his translation, rejecting it as a forgery. It was inserted into the text by other hands after Luther’s death.^[152][153]

Hymnodist[edit source]

Main article: List of hymns by Martin LutherAn early printing of Luther’s hymn “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott“

	Ein feste Burg sung in German (2:40)MENU0:00The German text of “Ein feste Burg” (“A Mighty Fortress”) sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Luther was a prolific hymnodist, authoring hymns such as “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott” (“A Mighty Fortress Is Our God“), based on Psalm 46, and “Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her” (“From Heaven Above to Earth I Come”), based on Luke 2:11–12.^[154] Luther connected high art and folk music, also all classes, clergy and laity, men, women and children. His tool of choice for this connection was the singing of German hymns in connection with worship, school, home, and the public arena.^[155] He often accompanied the sung hymns with a lute, later recreated as the waldzither that became a national instrument of Germany in the 20th century.^[156]

Luther’s hymns were frequently evoked by particular events in his life and the unfolding Reformation. This behavior started with his learning of the execution of Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos, the first individuals to be martyred by the Roman Catholic Church for Lutheran views, prompting Luther to write the hymn “Ein neues Lied wir heben an” (“A New Song We Raise”), which is generally known in English by John C. Messenger’s translation by the title and first line “Flung to the Heedless Winds” and sung to the tune Ibstone composed in 1875 by Maria C. Tiddeman.^[157]

Luther’s 1524 creedal hymn “Wir glauben all an einen Gott” (“We All Believe in One True God”) is a three-stanza confession of faith prefiguring Luther’s 1529 three-part explanation of the Apostles’ Creed in the Small Catechism. Luther’s hymn, adapted and expanded from an earlier German creedal hymn, gained widespread use in vernacular Lutheran liturgies as early as 1525. Sixteenth-century Lutheran hymnals also included “Wir glauben all” among the catechetical hymns, although 18th-century hymnals tended to label the hymn as Trinitarian rather than catechetical, and 20th-century Lutherans rarely used the hymn because of the perceived difficulty of its tune.^[155]

Autograph of “Vater unser im Himmelreich“, with the only notes extant in Luther’s handwriting

Luther’s 1538 hymnic version of the Lord’s Prayer, “Vater unser im Himmelreich“, corresponds exactly to Luther’s explanation of the prayer in the Small Catechism, with one stanza for each of the seven prayer petitions, plus opening and closing stanzas. The hymn functions both as a liturgical setting of the Lord’s Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. The extant manuscript shows multiple revisions, demonstrating Luther’s concern to clarify and strengthen the text and to provide an appropriately prayerful tune. Other 16th- and 20th-century versifications of the Lord’s Prayer have adopted Luther’s tune, although modern texts are considerably shorter.^[158]

Luther wrote “Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir” (“From depths of woe I cry to You”) in 1523 as a hymnic version of Psalm 130 and sent it as a sample to encourage his colleagues to write psalm-hymns for use in German worship. In a collaboration with Paul Speratus, this and seven other hymns were published in the Achtliederbuch, the first Lutheran hymnal. In 1524 Luther developed his original four-stanza psalm paraphrase into a five-stanza Reformation hymn that developed the theme of “grace alone” more fully. Because it expressed essential Reformation doctrine, this expanded version of “Aus tiefer Not” was designated as a regular component of several regional Lutheran liturgies and was widely used at funerals, including Luther’s own. Along with Erhart Hegenwalt’s hymnic version of Psalm 51, Luther’s expanded hymn was also adopted for use with the fifth part of Luther’s catechism, concerning confession.^[159]

Luther wrote “Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein” (“Oh God, look down from heaven”). “Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland” (Now come, Savior of the gentiles), based on Veni redemptor gentium, became the main hymn (Hauptlied) for Advent. He transformed A solus ortus cardine to “Christum wir sollen loben schon” (“We should now praise Christ”) and Veni Creator Spiritus to “Komm, Gott Schöpfer, Heiliger Geist” (“Come, Holy Spirit, Lord God”).^[160] He wrote two hymns on the Ten Commandments, “Dies sind die heilgen Zehn Gebot” and “Mensch, willst du leben seliglich”. His “Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ” (“Praise be to You, Jesus Christ”) became the main hymn for Christmas. He wrote for Pentecost “Nun bitten wir den Heiligen Geist“, and adopted for Easter “Christ ist erstanden” (Christ is risen), based on Victimae paschali laudes. “Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin“, a paraphrase of Nunc dimittis, was intended for Purification, but became also a funeral hymn. He paraphrased the Te Deum as “Herr Gott, dich loben wir” with a simplified form of the melody. It became known as the German Te Deum.

Luther’s 1541 hymn “Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam” (“To Jordan came the Christ our Lord”) reflects the structure and substance of his questions and answers concerning baptism in the Small Catechism. Luther adopted a preexisting Johann Walter tune associated with a hymnic setting of Psalm 67‘s prayer for grace; Wolf Heintz’s four-part setting of the hymn was used to introduce the Lutheran Reformation in Halle in 1541. Preachers and composers of the 18th century, including J.S. Bach, used this rich hymn as a subject for their own work, although its objective baptismal theology was displaced by more subjective hymns under the influence of late-19th-century Lutheran pietism.^[155]

Luther’s hymns were included in early Lutheran hymnals and spread the ideas of the Reformation. He supplied four of eight songs of the First Lutheran hymnal Achtliederbuch, 18 of 26 songs of the Erfurt Enchiridion, and 24 of the 32 songs in the first choral hymnal with settings by Johann Walter, Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn, all published in 1524. Luther’s hymns inspired composers to write music. Johann Sebastian Bach included several verses as chorales in his cantatas and based chorale cantatas entirely on them, namely Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4, as early as possibly 1707, in his second annual cycle (1724 to 1725) Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein, BWV 2, Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam, BWV 7, Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 62, Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, BWV 91, and Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir, BWV 38, later Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, BWV 80, and in 1735 Wär Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit, BWV 14.

On the soul after death[edit source]

Luther on the left with Lazarus being raised by Jesus from the dead, painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1558

In contrast to the views of John Calvin^[161] and Philipp Melanchthon,^[162] throughout his life Luther maintained that it was not false doctrine to believe that a Christian’s soul sleeps after it is separated from the body in death.^[163] Accordingly, he disputed traditional interpretations of some Bible passages, such as the parable of the rich man and Lazarus.^[164] This also led Luther to reject the idea of torments for the saints: “It is enough for us to know that souls do not leave their bodies to be threatened by the torments and punishments of hell, but enter a prepared bedchamber in which they sleep in peace.”^[165] He also rejected the existence of purgatory, which involved Christian souls undergoing penitential suffering after death.^[166] He affirmed the continuity of one’s personal identity beyond death. In his Smalcald Articles, he described the saints as currently residing “in their graves and in heaven.”^[167]

The Lutheran theologian Franz Pieper observes that Luther’s teaching about the state of the Christian’s soul after death differed from the later Lutheran theologians such as Johann Gerhard.^[168] Lessing (1755) had earlier reached the same conclusion in his analysis of Lutheran orthodoxy on this issue.^[169]

Luther’s Commentary on Genesis contains a passage which concludes that “the soul does not sleep (anima non sic dormit), but wakes (sed vigilat) and experiences visions”.^[170] Francis Blackburne argues that John Jortin misread this and other passages from Luther,^[171] while Gottfried Fritschel points out that it actually refers to the soul of a man “in this life” (homo enim in hac vita) tired from his daily labour (defatigus diurno labore) who at night enters his bedchamber (sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum) and whose sleep is interrupted by dreams.^[172]

Henry Eyster Jacobs’ English translation from 1898 reads:”Nevertheless, the sleep of this life and that of the future life differ; for in this life, man, fatigued by his daily labour, at nightfall goes to his couch, as in peace, to sleep there, and enjoys rest; nor does he know anything of evil, whether of fire or of murder.”^[173]

Sacramentarian controversy and the Marburg Colloquy[edit source]

See also: The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ—Against the FanaticsStatue of Martin Luther outside St. Mary’s Church, Berlin

In October 1529, Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, convoked an assembly of German and Swiss theologians at the Marburg Colloquy, to establish doctrinal unity in the emerging Protestant states.^[174] Agreement was achieved on fourteen points out of fifteen, the exception being the nature of the Eucharist—the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper—an issue crucial to Luther.^[175] The theologians, including Zwingli, Melanchthon, Martin Bucer, and Johannes Oecolampadius, differed on the significance of the words spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: “This is my body which is for you” and “This cup is the new covenant in my blood” (1 Corinthians 11:23–26).^[176] Luther insisted on the Real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the consecrated bread and wine, which he called the sacramental union,^[177] while his opponents believed God to be only spiritually or symbolically present.^[178]

Zwingli, for example, denied Jesus’ ability to be in more than one place at a time. Luther stressed the omnipresence of Jesus’ human nature.^[179] According to transcripts, the debate sometimes became confrontational. Citing Jesus’ words “The flesh profiteth nothing” (John 6.63), Zwingli said, “This passage breaks your neck”. “Don’t be too proud,” Luther retorted, “German necks don’t break that easily. This is Hesse, not Switzerland.”^[180] On his table Luther wrote the words “Hoc est corpus meum” (“This is my body”) in chalk, to continually indicate his firm stance.^[181]

Despite the disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in 1530 of the Augsburg Confession, and for the formation of the Schmalkaldic League the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. The Swiss cities, however, did not sign these agreements.^[182]

Epistemology[edit source]

Some scholars have asserted that Luther taught that faith and reason were antithetical in the sense that questions of faith could not be illuminated by reason. He wrote, “All the articles of our Christian faith, which God has revealed to us in His Word, are in presence of reason sheerly impossible, absurd, and false.”^[183] and “[That] Reason in no way contributes to faith. […] For reason is the greatest enemy that faith has; it never comes to the aid of spiritual things.”^[184] However, though seemingly contradictorily, he also wrote in the latter work that human reason “strives not against faith, when enlightened, but rather furthers and advances it”,^[185] bringing claims he was a fideist into dispute. Contemporary Lutheran scholarship, however, has found a different reality in Luther. Luther rather seeks to separate faith and reason in order to honor the separate spheres of knowledge that each applies to.

On Islam[edit source]

Further information: Protestantism and IslamThe battle between the Turks and the Christians, in the 16th century

At the time of the Marburg Colloquy, Suleiman the Magnificent was besieging Vienna with a vast Ottoman army.^[186] Luther had argued against resisting the Turks in his 1518 Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses, provoking accusations of defeatism. He saw the Turks as a scourge sent by God to punish Christians, as agents of the biblical apocalypse that would destroy the Antichrist, whom Luther believed to be the papacy and the Roman Church.^[187] He consistently rejected the idea of a Holy War, “as though our people were an army of Christians against the Turks, who were enemies of Christ. This is absolutely contrary to Christ’s doctrine and name”.^[188] On the other hand, in keeping with his doctrine of the two kingdoms, Luther did support non-religious war against the Turks.^[189] In 1526, he argued in Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace that national defence is reason for a just war.^[190] By 1529, in On War against the Turk, he was actively urging Emperor Charles V and the German people to fight a secular war against the Turks.^[191] He made clear, however, that the spiritual war against an alien faith was separate, to be waged through prayer and repentance.^[192] Around the time of the Siege of Vienna, Luther wrote a prayer for national deliverance from the Turks, asking God to “give to our emperor perpetual victory over our enemies”.^[193]

In 1542, Luther read a Latin translation of the Qur’an.^[194] He went on to produce several critical pamphlets on Islam, which he called “Mohammedanism” or “the Turk”.^[195] Though Luther saw the Muslim faith as a tool of the devil, he was indifferent to its practice: “Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the papacy and other false Christians live.”^[196] He opposed banning the publication of the Qur’an, wanting it exposed to scrutiny.^[197]

Antinomian controversy[edit source]

Pulpit of St. Andreas Church, Eisleben, where Agricola and Luther preached

Early in 1537, Johannes Agricola—serving at the time as pastor in Luther’s birthplace, Eisleben—preached a sermon in which he claimed that God’s gospel, not God’s moral law (the Ten Commandments), revealed God’s wrath to Christians. Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain anonymous antinomian theses circulating in Wittenberg. These theses asserted that the law is no longer to be taught to Christians but belonged only to city hall.^[198] Luther responded to these theses with six series of theses against Agricola and the antinomians, four of which became the basis for disputations between 1538 and 1540.^[199] He also responded to these assertions in other writings, such as his 1539 open letter to C. Güttel Against the Antinomians,^[200] and his book On the Councils and the Church from the same year.^[201]

In his theses and disputations against the antinomians, Luther reviews and reaffirms, on the one hand, what has been called the “second use of the law,” that is, the law as the Holy Spirit’s tool to work sorrow over sin in man’s heart, thus preparing him for Christ’s fulfillment of the law offered in the gospel.^[202] Luther states that everything that is used to work sorrow over sin is called the law, even if it is Christ’s life, Christ’s death for sin, or God’s goodness experienced in creation.^[203] Simply refusing to preach the Ten Commandments among Christians—thereby, as it were, removing the three letters l-a-w from the church—does not eliminate the accusing law.^[204] Claiming that the law—in any form—should not be preached to Christians anymore would be tantamount to asserting that Christians are no longer sinners in themselves and that the church consists only of essentially holy people.^[205]

Luther also points out that the Ten Commandments—when considered not as God’s condemning judgment but as an expression of his eternal will, that is, of the natural law—positively teach how the Christian ought to live.^[206] This has traditionally been called the “third use of the law.”^[207] For Luther, also Christ’s life, when understood as an example, is nothing more than an illustration of the Ten Commandments, which a Christian should follow in his or her vocations on a daily basis.^[208]

The Ten Commandments, and the beginnings of the renewed life of Christians accorded to them by the sacrament of baptism, are a present foreshadowing of the believers’ future angel-like life in heaven in the midst of this life.^[209] Luther’s teaching of the Ten Commandments, therefore, has clear eschatological overtones, which, characteristically for Luther, do not encourage world-flight but direct the Christian to service to the neighbor in the common, daily vocations of this perishing world.

Bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse[edit source]

From December 1539, Luther became implicated in the bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, who wanted to marry one of his wife’s ladies-in-waiting. Philip solicited the approval of Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer, citing as a precedent the polygamy of the patriarchs. The theologians were not prepared to make a general ruling, and they reluctantly advised the landgrave that if he was determined, he should marry secretly and keep quiet about the matter because divorce was worse than bigamy.^[210] As a result, on 4 March 1540, Philip married a second wife, Margarethe von der Saale, with Melanchthon and Bucer among the witnesses. However, Philip’s sister Elisabeth quickly made the scandal public, and Philip threatened to expose Luther’s advice. Luther told him to “tell a good, strong lie” and deny the marriage completely, which Philip did.^[211] Margarethe gave birth to nine children over a span of 17 years, giving Philip a total of 19 children. In the view of Luther’s biographer Martin Brecht, “giving confessional advice for Philip of Hesse was one of the worst mistakes Luther made, and, next to the landgrave himself, who was directly responsible for it, history chiefly holds Luther accountable”.^[212] Brecht argues that Luther’s mistake was not that he gave private pastoral advice, but that he miscalculated the political implications.^[213] The affair caused lasting damage to Luther’s reputation.^[214]

Antisemitism[edit source]

Main article: Martin Luther and antisemitismSee also: Christianity and antisemitismThe original title page of On the Jews and Their Lies, written by Martin Luther in 1543

Tovia Singer, an Orthodox Jewish rabbi, remarking about Luther’s attitude toward Jews, put it thus: “Among all the Church Fathers and Reformers, there was no mouth more vile, no tongue that uttered more vulgar curses against the Children of Israel than this founder of the Reformation.”^[215]

Luther wrote negatively about the Jews throughout his career.^[216] Though Luther rarely encountered Jews during his life, his attitudes reflected a theological and cultural tradition which saw Jews as a rejected people guilty of the murder of Christ, and he lived in a locality which had expelled Jews some ninety years earlier.^[217] He considered the Jews blasphemers and liars because they rejected the divinity of Jesus.^[218] In 1523, Luther advised kindness toward the Jews in That Jesus Christ was Born a Jew and also aimed to convert them to Christianity.^[219] When his efforts at conversion failed, he grew increasingly bitter toward them.^[220]

Luther’s major works on the Jews were his 60,000-word treatise Von den Juden und Ihren Lügen (On the Jews and Their Lies), and Vom Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi (On the Holy Name and the Lineage of Christ), both published in 1543, three years before his death.^[221] Luther argues that the Jews were no longer the chosen people but “the devil’s people”, and refers to them with violent language.^[222][223] Citing Deuteronomy 13, wherein Moses commands the killing of idolaters and the burning of their cities and property as an offering to God, Luther calls for a “scharfe Barmherzigkeit” (“sharp mercy”) against the Jews “to see whether we might save at least a few from the glowing flames.”^[224] Luther advocates setting synagogues on fire, destroying Jewish prayerbooks, forbidding rabbis from preaching, seizing Jews’ property and money, and smashing up their homes, so that these “envenomed worms” would be forced into labour or expelled “for all time”.^[225] In Robert Michael‘s view, Luther’s words “We are at fault in not slaying them” amounted to a sanction for murder.^[226] “God’s anger with them is so intense,” Luther concludes, “that gentle mercy will only tend to make them worse, while sharp mercy will reform them but little. Therefore, in any case, away with them!”^[224]

Luther spoke out against the Jews in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Silesia.^[227] Josel of Rosheim, the Jewish spokesman who tried to help the Jews of Saxony in 1537, later blamed their plight on “that priest whose name was Martin Luther—may his body and soul be bound up in hell!—who wrote and issued many heretical books in which he said that whoever would help the Jews was doomed to perdition.”^[228] Josel asked the city of Strasbourg to forbid the sale of Luther’s anti-Jewish works: they refused initially but did so when a Lutheran pastor in Hochfelden used a sermon to urge his parishioners to murder Jews.^[227] Luther’s influence persisted after his death. Throughout the 1580s, riots led to the expulsion of Jews from several German Lutheran states.^[229]

Luther was the most widely read author of his generation, and within Germany he acquired the status of a prophet.^[230] According to the prevailing opinion among historians,^[231] his anti-Jewish rhetoric contributed significantly to the development of antisemitism in Germany,^[232] and in the 1930s and 1940s provided an “ideal underpinning” for the Nazis’ attacks on Jews.^[233] Reinhold Lewin writes that anybody who “wrote against the Jews for whatever reason believed he had the right to justify himself by triumphantly referring to Luther.” According to Michael, just about every anti-Jewish book printed in the Third Reich contained references to and quotations from Luther. Heinrich Himmler (albeit never a Lutheran, having been brought up Catholic) wrote admiringly of his writings and sermons on the Jews in 1940.^[234] The city of Nuremberg presented a first edition of On the Jews and their Lies to Julius Streicher, editor of the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer, on his birthday in 1937; the newspaper described it as the most radically antisemitic tract ever published.^[235] It was publicly exhibited in a glass case at the Nuremberg rallies and quoted in a 54-page explanation of the Aryan Law by E.H. Schulz and R. Frercks.^[236]

On 17 December 1941, seven Protestant regional church confederations issued a statement agreeing with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the yellow badge, “since after his bitter experience Luther had already suggested preventive measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory.” According to Daniel Goldhagen, Bishop Martin Sasse, a leading Protestant churchman, published a compendium of Luther’s writings shortly after Kristallnacht, for which Diarmaid MacCulloch, professor of the history of the church at the University of Oxford argued that Luther’s writing was a “blueprint.”^[237] Sasse applauded the burning of the synagogues and the coincidence of the day, writing in the introduction, “On 10 November 1938, on Luther’s birthday, the synagogues are burning in Germany.” The German people, he urged, ought to heed these words “of the greatest antisemite of his time, the warner of his people against the Jews.”^[238]

“There is a world of difference between his belief in salvation and a racial ideology. Nevertheless, his misguided agitation had the evil result that Luther fatefully became one of the ‘church fathers’ of anti-Semitism and thus provided material for the modern hatred of the Jews, cloaking it with the authority of the Reformer.”

Martin Brecht^[239]

At the heart of scholars’ debate about Luther’s influence is whether it is anachronistic to view his work as a precursor of the racial antisemitism of the Nazis. Some scholars see Luther’s influence as limited, and the Nazis’ use of his work as opportunistic. Johannes Wallmann argues that Luther’s writings against the Jews were largely ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, and that there was no continuity between Luther’s thought and Nazi ideology.^[240] Uwe Siemon-Netto agreed, arguing that it was because the Nazis were already antisemites that they revived Luther’s work.^[241][242] Hans J. Hillerbrand agreed that to focus on Luther was to adopt an essentially ahistorical perspective of Nazi antisemitism that ignored other contributory factors in German history.^[243] Similarly, Roland Bainton, noted church historian and Luther biographer, wrote “One could wish that Luther had died before ever [On the Jews and Their Lies] was written. His position was entirely religious and in no respect racial.”^[244][245] However, Christopher J. Probst, in his book Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany (2012), shows that a large number of German Protestant clergy and theologians during the Nazi Third Reich used Luther’s hostile publications towards the Jews and their Jewish religion to justify at least in part the anti-Semitic policies of the National Socialists.^[246] The pro-Nazi Christian group Deutsche Christen drew parallels between Martin Luther and the “Führer” Adolf Hitler.^[247]

Some scholars, such as Mark U. Edwards in his book Luther’s Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46 (1983), suggest that since Luther’s increasingly antisemitic views developed during the years his health deteriorated, it is possible they were at least partly the product of a state of mind. Edwards also comments that Luther often deliberately used “vulgarity and violence” for effect, both in his writings condemning the Jews and in diatribes against “Turks” (Muslims) and Catholics.^[248]

Since the 1980s, Lutheran denominations have repudiated Martin Luther’s statements against the Jews and have rejected the use of them to incite hatred against Lutherans.^[249][250] Strommen et al.’s 1970 survey of 4,745 North American Lutherans aged 15–65 found that, compared to the other minority groups under consideration, Lutherans were the least prejudiced toward Jews.^[251] Nevertheless, Professor Richard Geary, former professor of modern history at the University of Nottingham and the author of Hitler and Nazism (Routledge 1993), published an article in the magazine History Today examining electoral trends in Weimar Germany between 1928 and 1933. Geary notes, based on his research, that the Nazi Party received disproportionately more votes from Protestant than Catholic areas of Germany.^[252][253]

Final years, illness and death[edit source]

Luther on his deathbed, painting by Lucas Cranach the ElderMartin Luther’s grave, Schlosskirche, Wittenberg

Luther had been suffering from ill health for years, including Ménière’s disease, vertigo, fainting, tinnitus, and a cataract in one eye.^[254] From 1531 to 1546 his health deteriorated further. In 1536, he began to suffer from kidney and bladder stones, arthritis, and an ear infection ruptured an ear drum. In December 1544, he began to feel the effects of angina.^[255]

His poor physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katharina was overheard saying, “Dear husband, you are too rude,” and he responded, “They are teaching me to be rude.”^[256] In 1545 and 1546 Luther preached three times in the Market Church in Halle, staying with his friend Justus Jonas during Christmas.^[257]

His last sermon was delivered at Eisleben, his place of birth, on 15 February 1546, three days before his death.^[258] It was “entirely devoted to the obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory,” according to Léon Poliakov.^[259] James Mackinnon writes that it concluded with a “fiery summons to drive the Jews bag and baggage from their midst, unless they desisted from their calumny and their usury and became Christians.”^[260] Luther said, “we want to practice Christian love toward them and pray that they convert,” but also that they are “our public enemies … and if they could kill us all, they would gladly do so. And so often they do.”^[261]

Luther’s final journey, to Mansfeld, was taken because of his concern for his siblings’ families continuing in their father Hans Luther’s copper mining trade. Their livelihood was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld bringing the industry under his own control. The controversy that ensued involved all four Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late 1545 to participate in the negotiations for a settlement, and a third visit was needed in early 1546 for their completion.

The negotiations were successfully concluded on 17 February 1546. After 8 p.m., he experienced chest pains. When he went to his bed, he prayed, “Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1 a.m. on 18 February, he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. He thanked God for revealing his Son to him in whom he had believed. His companions, Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius, shouted loudly, “Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name?” A distinct “Yes” was Luther’s reply.^[262]

An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a.m. on 18 February 1546, aged 62, in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the Schlosskirche in Wittenberg, in front of the pulpit.^[263] The funeral was held by his friends Johannes Bugenhagen and Philipp Melanchthon.^[264] A year later, troops of Luther’s adversary Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor entered the town but were ordered by Charles not to disturb the grave.^[264]

A piece of paper was later found on which Luther had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from “We are beggars,” which was in German. The statement reads:

1. No one can understand Virgil‘s Bucolics unless he has been a shepherd for five years. No one can understand Virgil’s Georgics, unless he has been a farmer for five years.
2. No one can understand Cicero’s Letters (or so I teach), unless he has busied himself in the affairs of some prominent state for twenty years.
3. Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as Elijah and Elisha, John the Baptist, Christ and the apostles.

Do not assail this divine Aeneid; nay, rather prostrate revere the ground that it treads.

We are beggars: this is true.^[265][266]

The tomb of Philipp Melanchthon, Luther’s contemporary and fellow reformer, is also located in the All Saints’ Church.^{[267][268][269][270][271]}

• Martin Luther’s Death House, considered the site of Luther’s death since 1726. However the building where Luther actually died (at Markt 56, now the site of Hotel Graf von Mansfeld) was torn down in 1570.^[272]
• Casts of Luther’s face and hands at his death, in the Market Church in Halle^[273]
• Schlosskirche in Wittenberg, where Luther posted his Ninety-five Theses, is also his gravesite.
• Luther’s tombstone beneath the pulpit in the Castle Church in Wittenberg
• Close-up of the grave with inscription in Latin

Legacy and commemoration[edit source]

Worldwide Protestantism in 2010

Luther made effective use of Johannes Gutenberg‘s printing press to spread his views. He switched from Latin to German in his writing to appeal to a broader audience. Between 1500 and 1530, Luther’s works represented one fifth of all materials printed in Germany.^[274]

In the 1530s and 1540s, printed images of Luther that emphasized his monumental size were crucial to the spread of Protestantism. In contrast to images of frail Catholic saints, Luther was presented as a stout man with a “double chin, strong mouth, piercing deep-set eyes, fleshy face, and squat neck.” He was shown to be physically imposing, an equal in stature to the secular German princes with whom he would join forces to spread Lutheranism. His large body also let the viewer know that he did not shun earthly pleasures like drinking—behavior that was a stark contrast to the ascetic life of the medieval religious orders. Famous images from this period include the woodcuts by Hans Brosamer (1530) and Lucas Cranach the Elder and Lucas Cranach the Younger (1546).^[275]Luther Monument in Eisenach, Germany

Luther is honoured on 18 February with a commemoration in the Lutheran Calendar of Saints and in the Episcopal (United States) Calendar of Saints. In the Church of England’s Calendar of Saints he is commemorated on 31 October.^[276] Luther is honored in various ways by Christian traditions coming out directly from the Protestant Reformation, i.e. Lutheranism, the Reformed tradition, and Anglicanism. Branches of Protestantism that emerged afterwards vary in their remembrance and veneration of Luther, ranging from a complete lack of a single mention of him to a commemoration almost comparable to the way Lutherans commemorate and remember his persona. There is no known condemnation of Luther by Protestants themselves.Martin Luther College in New Ulm, Minnesota, United States

External video
Booknotes interview with Martin Marty on Martin Luther, 11 April 2004, C-SPAN

Various sites both inside and outside Germany (supposedly) visited by Martin Luther throughout his lifetime commemorate it with local memorials. Saxony-Anhalt has two towns officially named after Luther, Lutherstadt Eisleben and Lutherstadt Wittenberg. Mansfeld is sometimes called Mansfeld-Lutherstadt, although the state government has not decided to put the Lutherstadt suffix in its official name.

Reformation Day commemorates the publication of the Ninety-five Theses in 1517 by Martin Luther; it has been historically important in the following European entities. It is a civic holiday in the German states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg. Two further states (Lower Saxony and Bremen) are pending a vote on introducing it. Slovenia celebrates it because of the profound contribution of the Reformation to its culture. Austria allows Protestant children not to go to school that day, and Protestant workers have a right to leave work in order to participate in a church service. Switzerland celebrates the holiday on the first Sunday after 31 October. It is also celebrated elsewhere around the world.

Luther and the swan[edit source]

• Luther with a swan (painting in the church at Strümpfelbach im Remstal, Weinstadt, Germany, by J. A. List)
• Swan weather vane, Round Lutheran Church, Amsterdam
• Altar in St Martin’s Church, Halberstadt, Germany. Luther and the swan are toward the top on the right.
• Coin commemorating Luther (engraving by Georg Wilhelm Göbel, Saxony, 1706)

Luther is often depicted with a swan as his attribute, and Lutheran churches often have a swan for a weather vane. This association with the swan arises out of a prophecy reportedly made by the earlier reformer Jan Hus from Bohemia and endorsed by Luther. In the Bohemian language (now Czech), Hus’s name meant “grey goose”. In 1414, while imprisoned by the Council of Constance and anticipating his execution by burning for heresy, Hus prophesied, “Now they will roast a goose, but in a hundred years’ time they’ll hear a swan sing. They’d better listen to him.” Luther published his Ninety-five Theses some 103 years later.^{[277][278][279]}

Works and editions[edit source]

Main article: Martin Luther bibliographyVarious books of the Weimar Edition of Luther’s works

• The Erlangen Edition (Erlangener Ausgabe: “EA”), comprising the Exegetica opera latina – Latin exegetical works of Luther.
• The Weimar Edition (Weimarer Ausgabe) is the exhaustive, standard German edition of Luther’s Latin and German works, indicated by the abbreviation “WA”. This is continued into “WA Br” Weimarer Ausgabe, Briefwechsel (correspondence), “WA Tr” Weimarer Ausgabe, Tischreden (tabletalk) and “WA DB” Weimarer Ausgabe, Deutsche Bibel (German Bible).
• The American Edition (Luther’s Works) is the most extensive English translation of Luther’s writings, indicated either by the abbreviation “LW” or “AE”. The first 55 volumes were published 1955–1986, and a twenty volume extension (vols. 56–75) is planned of which volumes 58, 60, and 68 have appeared thus far.

See also[edit source]

• Christianity portal

• Antilegomena
• George of Hungary
• Luther’s canon
• Luther’s Marian theology
• Lutherhaus Eisenach
• Martin Luther’s Birth House
• Propaganda during the Reformation
• Protestantism in Germany
• Resources about Martin Luther
• Theology of Martin Luther
• Bruder Martin
• Hochstratus Ovans
• Theologia Germanica

References[edit source]

1. ^ “Luther”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.
2. ^ Luther himself, however, believed that he had been born in 1484. Hendrix, Scott H. (2015). Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer. Yale University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-300-16669-9. Retrieved 12 November 2017.
3. ^ Luther consistently referred to himself as a former monk. For example: “Thus formerly, when I was a monk, I used to hope that I would be able to pacify my conscience with the fastings, the praying, and the vigils with which I used to afflict my body in a way to excite pity. But the more I sweat, the less quiet and peace I felt; for the true light had been removed from my eyes.” Martin Luther, Lectures on Genesis: Chapters 45–50, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 8 Luther’s Works. (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1999), 5:326.
4. ^ Ewald M. Plass, What Luther Says, 3 vols., (St. Louis: CPH, 1959), 88, no. 269; M. Reu, Luther and the Scriptures, (Columbus, Ohio: Wartburg Press, 1944), 23.
5. ^ Luther, Martin. Concerning the Ministry (1523), tr. Conrad Bergendoff, in Bergendoff, Conrad (ed.) Luther’s Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1958, 40:18 ff.
6. ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey William. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:244.
7. ^ Tyndale’s New Testament, trans. from the Greek by William Tyndale in 1534 in a modern-spelling edition and with an introduction by David Daniell. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989, ix–x.
8. ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 269.
9. ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, p. 223.
10. ^ Hendrix, Scott H. “The Controversial Luther” Archived 2 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Word & World 3/4 (1983), Luther Seminary, St. Paul, MN. Also see Hillerbrand, Hans. “The legacy of Martin Luther”, in Hillerbrand, Hans & McKim, Donald K. (eds.) The Cambridge Companion to Luther. Cambridge University Press, 2003. In 1523, Luther wrote that Jesus Christ was born a Jew which discouraged mistreatment of the Jews and advocated their conversion by proving that the Old Testament could be shown to speak of Jesus Christ. However, as the Reformation grew, Luther began to lose hope in large-scale Jewish conversion to Christianity, and in the years his health deteriorated he grew more acerbic toward the Jews, writing against them with the kind of venom he had already unleashed on the Anabaptists, Zwingli, and the pope.
11. ^ Schaff, Philip: History of the Christian Church, Vol. VIII: Modern Christianity: The Swiss Reformation, William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA, 1910, page 706.
12. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 1.
13. ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:3–5.
14. ^ “Martin Luther | Biography, Reformation, Works, & Facts”.
15. ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 3.
16. ^ Rupp, Ernst Gordon. “Martin Luther,” Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 2006.
17. ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, pp. 2–3.
18. ^ Jump up to:^a b Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 4.
19. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 5.
20. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 6.
21. ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:48.
22. ^ Brecht, Martin (1985). Google Books Archive of Martin Luther: His road to Reformation, 1483–1521 (By Martin Brecht). Martin Luther: His road to Reformation, 1483–1521 (By Martin Brecht). ISBN 978-1-4514-1414-1. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
23. ^ Schwiebert, E.G. Luther and His Times. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1950, 136.
24. ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 7.
25. ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 40–42.
26. ^ Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986, 79.
27. ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 44–45.
28. ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:93.
29. ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:112–27.
30. ^ Hendrix, Scott H. (2015). Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-300-16669-9.
31. ^ Hendrix, Scott H. (2015). Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-300-16669-9.
32. ^ “Johann Tetzel,” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007
33. ^ At first, “the pope demanded twelve thousand ducats for the twelve apostles. Albert offered seven thousand ducats for the seven deadly sins. They compromised on ten thousand, presumably not for the Ten Commandments”. Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), p. 75, online
34. ^ Cummings 2002, p. 32.
35. ^ Jump up to:^a b Hillerbrand, Hans J. “Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation,” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
36. ^ Thesis 55 of Tetzel’s One Hundred and Six Theses. These “Anti-theses” were a reply to Luther’s Ninety-five Theses and were drawn up by Tetzel’s friend and former Professor, Konrad Wimpina. Theses 55 & 56 (responding to Luther’s 27th Theses) read: “For a soul to fly out, is for it to obtain the vision of God, which can be hindered by no interruption, therefore he errs who says that the soul cannot fly out before the coin can jingle in the bottom of the chest.” In, The reformation in Germany, Henry Clay Vedder, 1914, Macmillan Company, p. 405. [1] Animam purgatam evolare, est eam visione dei potiri, quod nulla potest intercapedine impediri. Quisquis ergo dicit, non citius posse animam volare, quam in fundo cistae denarius possit tinnire, errat. In: D. Martini Lutheri, Opera Latina: Varii Argumenti, 1865, Henricus Schmidt, ed., Heyder and Zimmer, Frankfurt am Main & Erlangen, vol. 1, p. 300. (Print on demand edition: Nabu Press, 2010, ISBN 978-1-142-40551-9). [2] See also: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). “Johann Tetzel” . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
37. ^ Krämer, Walter and Trenkler, Götz. “Luther” in Lexicon van Hardnekkige Misverstanden. Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, 1997, 214:216.
38. ^ Ritter, Gerhard. Luther, Frankfurt 1985.
39. ^ Gerhard Prause “Luthers Thesanschlag ist eine Legende,”in Niemand hat Kolumbus ausgelacht. Düsseldorf, 1986.
40. ^ Marshall, Peter 1517: Martin Luther and the Invention of the Reformation (Oxford University Press, 2017) ISBN 978-0-19-968201-0
41. ^ Bekker, Henrik (2010). Dresden Leipzig & Saxony Adventure Guide. Hunter Publishing, Inc. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-58843-950-5. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
42. ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), p. 79, online
43. ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:204–05.
44. ^ Spitz, Lewis W. The Renaissance and Reformation Movements, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987, 338.
45. ^ Wriedt, Markus. “Luther’s Theology,” in The Cambridge Companion to Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 88–94.
46. ^ Bouman, Herbert J.A. “The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions”, Concordia Theological Monthly, 26 November 1955, No. 11:801.
47. ^ Dorman, Ted M., “Justification as Healing: The Little-Known Luther”, Quodlibet Journal: Volume 2 Number 3, Summer 2000. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
48. ^ “Luther’s Definition of Faith”.
49. ^ “Justification by Faith: The Lutheran-Catholic Convergence”. Archived from the original on 15 June 2010.
50. ^ Luther, Martin. “The Smalcald Articles,” in Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.
51. ^ Michael A. Mullett, Martin Luther, London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 978-0-415-26168-5, 78; Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-300-10313-1, 192–93.
52. ^ Mullett, 68–69; Oberman, 189.
53. ^ Richard Marius, Luther, London: Quartet, 1975, ISBN 0-7043-3192-6, 85.
54. ^ Papal Bull Exsurge Domine, 15 June 1520.
55. ^ Mullett, 81–82.
56. ^ “Luther meets with Cajetan at Augsburg”. Reformation 500 – Concordia Seminary, St. Louis. 11 January 2012. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
57. ^ “The Acts and Monuments of the Church – Martin Luther”. exclassics.com. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
58. ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), Chapter V, p. 96, online
59. ^ Mullett, 82.
60. ^ Mullett, 83.
61. ^ Oberman, 197.
62. ^ Mullett, 92–95; Roland H. Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther, New York: Mentor, 1955, OCLC 220064892, 81.
63. ^ Marius, 87–89; Bainton, Mentor edition, 82.
64. ^ Marius, 93; Bainton, Mentor edition, 90.
65. ^ G. R. Elton, Reformation Europe: 1517–1559, London: Collins, 1963, OCLC 222872115, 177.
66. ^ Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) “Luther, Martin,” in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.
67. ^ Becking, Bob; Cannegieter, Alex; van er Poll, Wilfred (2016). From Babylon to Eternity: The Exile Remembered and Constructed in Text and Tradition. Routledge. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-134-90386-3.
68. ^ Wooden, Cindy. “Methodists adapt Catholic-Lutheran declaration on justification.” 24 July 2006
69. ^ David Van Biema, “A Half-Millennium Rift,” TIME, 6 July 1998, 80.
70. ^ Cindy Wooden, “Lutheran World Council OKs joint declaration on justification,” The Pilot, 19 June 1998, 20.
71. ^ Brecht, 1:460.
72. ^ Jump up to:^a b Mullett (1986), p. 25
73. ^ Luther, Martin. “Life of Luther (Luther by Martin Luther)”.
74. ^ Wilson, 153, 170; Marius, 155.
75. ^ Bratcher, Dennis. “The Diet of Worms (1521),” in The Voice: Biblical and Theological Resources for Growing Christians. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
76. ^ Reformation Europe: 1517–1559, London: Fontana, 1963, 53; Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe’s House Divided, 1490–1700, London: Allen Lane, 2003, 132.
77. ^ Luther, Martin. “Letter 82,” in Luther’s Works. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald and Helmut T. Lehmann (eds), Vol. 48: Letters I, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1999, c1963, 48:246; Mullett, 133. John, author of Revelation, had been exiled on the island of Patmos.
78. ^ Brecht, 2:12–14.
79. ^ Mullett, 132, 134; Wilson, 182.
80. ^ Brecht, 2:7–9; Marius, 161–62; Marty, 77–79.
81. ^ Martin Luther, “Let Your Sins Be Strong,” a Letter From Luther to Melanchthon, August 1521, Project Wittenberg, retrieved 1 October 2006.
82. ^ Brecht, 2:27–29; Mullett, 133.
83. ^ Brecht, 2:18–21.
84. ^ Marius, 163–64.
85. ^ Mullett, 135–36.
86. ^ Wilson, 192–202; Brecht, 2:34–38.
87. ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 164–65.
88. ^ Letter of 7 March 1522. Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV; Brecht, 2:57.
89. ^ Brecht, 2:60; Bainton, Mentor edition, 165; Marius, 168–69.
90. ^ Jump up to:^a b Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV.
91. ^ Marius, 169.
92. ^ Mullett, 141–43.
93. ^ Michael Hughes, Early Modern Germany: 1477–1806, London: Macmillan, 1992, ISBN 0-333-53774-2, 45.
94. ^ A.G. Dickens, The German Nation and Martin Luther, London: Edward Arnold, 1974, ISBN 0-7131-5700-3, 132–33. Dickens cites as an example of Luther’s “liberal” phraseology: “Therefore I declare that neither pope nor bishop nor any other person has the right to impose a syllable of law upon a Christian man without his own consent”.
95. ^ Hughes, 45–47.
96. ^ Hughes, 50.
97. ^ Jaroslav J. Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, Luther’s Works, 55 vols. (St. Louis and Philadelphia: Concordia Pub. House and Fortress Press, 1955–1986), 46: 50–51.
98. ^ Mullett, 166.
99. ^ Whitford, David, Tyranny and Resistance: The Magdeburg Confession and the Lutheran Tradition, 2001, 144 pages
100. ^ Hughes, 51.
101. ^ Andrew Pettegree, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-20704-X, 102–03.
102. ^ Erlangen Edition of Luther’s Works, Vol. 59, p. 284
103. ^ Wilson, 232.
104. ^ Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch V, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.
105. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Scheible, Heinz (1997). Melanchthon. Eine Biographie (in German). Munich: C.H.Beck. p. 147. ISBN 978-3-406-42223-2.
106. ^ Lohse, Bernhard, Martin Luther: An Introduction to his Life and Work,, translated by Robert C. Schultz, Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1987, ISBN 0-567-09357-3, 32; Brecht, 2:196–97.
107. ^ Brecht, 2:199; Wilson, 234; Lohse, 32.
108. ^ Schaff, Philip. “Luther’s Marriage. 1525.”, History of the Christian Church, Volume VII, Modern Christianity, The German Reformation. § 77, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Mullett, 180–81.
109. ^ Marty, 109; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.
110. ^ Brecht, 2: 202; Mullett, 182.
111. ^ Oberman, 278–80; Wilson, 237; Marty, 110.
112. ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 228; Schaff, “Luther’s Marriage. 1525.”; Brecht, 2: 204.
113. ^ MacCulloch, 164.
114. ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 243.
115. ^ Schroeder, Steven (2000). Between Freedom and Necessity: An Essay on the Place of Value. Rodopi. p. 104. ISBN 978-90-420-1302-5.
116. ^ Brecht, 2:260–63, 67; Mullett, 184–86.
117. ^ Brecht, 2:267; Bainton, Mentor edition, 244.
118. ^ Brecht, 2:267; MacCulloch, 165. On one occasion, Luther referred to the elector as an “emergency bishop” (Notbischof).
119. ^ Mullett, 186–87; Brecht, 2:264–65, 267.
120. ^ Brecht, 2:264–65.
121. ^ Brecht, 2:268.
122. ^ Brecht, 2:251–54; Bainton, Mentor edition, 266.
123. ^ Brecht, 2:255.
124. ^ Mullett, 183; Eric W. Gritsch, A History of Lutheranism, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8006-3472-1, 37.
125. ^ Brecht, 2:256; Mullett, 183.
126. ^ Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 265–66.
127. ^ Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 269–70.
128. ^ Brecht, 2:256–57.
129. ^ Brecht, 2:258.
130. ^ Brecht, 2:263.
131. ^ Mullett, 186. Quoted from Luther’s preface to the Small Catechism, 1529; MacCulloch, 165.
132. ^ Marty, 123.
133. ^ Brecht, 2:273; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
134. ^ Marty, 123; Wilson, 278.
135. ^ Luther, Martin. Luther’s Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971, 50:172–73; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
136. ^ Brecht, 2:277, 280.
137. ^ See texts at English translation
138. ^ Jump up to:^a b Charles P. Arand, “Luther on the Creed.” Lutheran Quarterly 2006 20(1): 1–25. ISSN 0024-7499; James Arne Nestingen, “Luther’s Catechisms” The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. Ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand. (1996)
139. ^ Mullett, 145; Lohse, 119.
140. ^ Mullett, 148–50.
141. ^ “Mentelin Bible”. World Digital Library. 1466. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
142. ^ “Koberger Bible”. World Digital Library. 1483. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
143. ^ Gow, Andrew C. (2009). “The Contested History of a Book: The German Bible of the Later Middle Ages and Reformation in Legend, Ideology, and Scholarship”. The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 9. doi:10.5508/jhs.2009.v9.a13. ISSN 1203-1542.
144. ^ Wilson, 183; Brecht, 2:48–49.
145. ^ Mullett, 149; Wilson, 302.
146. ^ Marius, 162.
147. ^ Lohse, 112–17; Wilson, 183; Bainton, Mentor edition, 258.
148. ^ Daniel Weissbort and Astradur Eysteinsson (eds.), Translation – Theory and Practice: A Historical Reader, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-871200-6, 68.
149. ^ Mullett, 148; Wilson, 185; Bainton, Mentor edition, 261. Luther inserted the word “alone” (allein) after the word “faith” in his translation of St Paul’s Epistle to the Romans, 3:28. The clause is rendered in the English Authorised Version as “Therefore we conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law”.
150. ^ Lindberg, Carter. “The European Reformations: Sourcebook”. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2000. p. 49. Original sourcebook excerpt taken from Luther’s Works. St. Louis: Concordia/Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1955–86. ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 35. pp. 182, 187–89, 195.
151. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. (1994). A textual commentary on the Greek New Testament: a companion volume to the United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testament (fourth revised edition) (2 ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. pp. 647–49. ISBN 978-3-438-06010-5.
152. ^ Criticus, (Rev. William Orme) (1830). Memoir of The Controversy respecting the Three Heavenly Witnesses, I John V.7. London: (1872, Boston, “a new edition, with notes and an appendix by Ezra Abbot”). p. 42.
153. ^ White, Andrew Dickson (1896). A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology, Vol. 2. New York: Appleton. p. 304.
154. ^ For a short collection see online hymns
155. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Christopher Boyd Brown, Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation. (2005)
156. ^ “Waldzither – Bibliography of the 19th century”. Studia Instrumentorum. Retrieved 23 March 2014. Es ist eine unbedingte Notwendigkeit, dass der Deutsche zu seinen Liedern auch ein echt deutsches Begleitinstrument besitzt. Wie der Spanier seine Gitarre (fälschlich Laute genannt), der Italiener seine Mandoline, der Engländer das Banjo, der Russe die Balalaika usw. sein Nationalinstrument nennt, so sollte der Deutsche seine Laute, die Waldzither, welche schon von Dr. Martin Luther auf der Wartburg im Thüringer Walde (daher der Name Waldzither) gepflegt wurde, zu seinem Nationalinstrument machen. Liederheft von C.H. Böhm (Hamburg, March 1919)
157. ^ “Flung to the heedless winds”. Hymntime. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
158. ^ Robin A. Leaver, “Luther’s Catechism Hymns.” Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(1): 79–88, 89–98.
159. ^ Robin A. Leaver, “Luther’s Catechism Hymns: 5. Baptism.” Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(2): 160–69, 170–80.
160. ^ Christoph Markschies, Michael Trowitzsch: Luther zwischen den Zeiten – Eine Jenaer Ringvorlesung; Mohr Siebeck, 1999; pp. 215–19 (in German).
161. ^ Psychopannychia (the night banquet of the soul), manuscript Orléans 1534, Latin Strasbourg 1542, 2nd.ed. 1545, French, Geneva 1558, English 1581.
162. ^ Liber de Anima 1562
163. ^ D. Franz Pieper Christliche Dogmatik, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1920), 3:575: “Hieraus geht sicher so viel hervor, daß die abgeschiedenen Seelen der Gläubigen in einem Zustande des seligen Genießens Gottes sich befinden …. Ein Seelenschlaf, der ein Genießen Gottes einschließt (so Luther), ist nicht als irrige Lehre zu bezeichnen”; English translation: Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1953), 3:512: “These texts surely make it evident that the departed souls of the believers are in a state of blessed enjoyment of God …. A sleep of the soul which includes enjoyment of God (says Luther) cannot be called a false doctrine.”
164. ^ Sermons of Martin Luther: the House Postils, Eugene F.A. Klug, ed. and trans., 3 vols., (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1996), 2:240.
165. ^ Weimarer Ausgabe 43, 360, 21–23 (to Genesis 25:7–10): also Exegetica opera latina Vol 5–6 1833 p. 120 and the English translation: Luther’s Works, American Edition, 55 vols. (St. Louis: CPH), 4:313; “Sufficit igitur nobis haec cognitio, non egredi animas ex corporibus in periculum cruciatum et paenarum inferni, sed esse eis paratum cubiculum, in quo dormiant in pace.”
166. ^ “Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 12”. Bookofconcord.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
167. ^ “Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 28”. Bookofconcord.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
168. ^ Gerhard Loci Theologici, Locus de Morte, § 293 ff. Pieper writes: “Luther speaks more guardedly of the state of the soul between death and resurrection than do Gerhard and the later theologians, who transfer some things to the state between death and resurrection which can be said with certainty only of the state after the resurrection” (Christian Dogmatics, 3:512, footnote 21).
169. ^ Article in the Berlinischer Zeitung 1755 in Complete Works ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Lachmann – 1838 p. 59 “Was die Gegner auf alle diese Stellen antworten werden, ist leicht zu errathen. Sie werden sagen, daß Luther mit dem Worte Schlaf gar die Begriffe nicht verbinde, welche Herr R. damit verbindet. Wenn Luther sage, daß die Seele IS nach dem Tode schlafe, so denke er nichts mehr dabey, als was alle Leute denken, wenn sie den Tod des Schlafes Bruder nennen. Tode ruhe, leugneten auch die nicht, welche ihr Wachen behaupteten :c. Ueberhaupt ist mit Luthers Ansehen bey der ganzen Streitigkeit nichts zu gewinnen.”
170. ^ Exegetica opera Latina, Volumes 5–6 Martin Luther, ed. Christopf Stephan Elsperger (Gottlieb) p. 120 “Differunt tamen somnus sive quies hujus vitae et futurae. Homo enim in hac vita defatigatus diurno labore, sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum tanquam in pace, ut ibi dormiat, et ea nocte fruitur quiete, neque quicquam scit de ullo malo sive incendii, sive caedis. Anima autem non sic dormit, sed vigilat, et patitur visiones loquelas Angelorum et Dei. Ideo somnus in futura vita profundior est quam in hac vita et tamen anima coram Deo vivit. Hac similitudine, quam habeo a somno viventia.” (Commentary on Genesis – Enarrationes in Genesin, XXV, 1535–1545)”
171. ^ Blackburne A short historical view of the controversy concerning an intermediate state (1765) p121
172. ^ Gottfried Fritschel. Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche p. 657 “Denn dass Luther mit den Worten “anima non sic dormit, sed vigilat et patitur visiones, loquelas Angelorum et Dei” nicht dasjenige leugnen will, was er an allen andern Stellen seiner Schriften vortragt”
173. ^ Henry Eyster Jacobs Martin Luther the Hero of the Reformation 1483 to 1546 (1898). Emphasis added.
174. ^ Mullett, 194–95.
175. ^ Brecht, 2:325–34; Mullett, 197.
176. ^ Wilson, 259.
177. ^ Weimar Ausgabe 26, 442; Luther’s Works 37, 299–300.
178. ^ Oberman, 237.
179. ^ Marty, 140–41; Lohse, 74–75.
180. ^ Quoted by Oberman, 237.
181. ^ Brecht 2:329.
182. ^ Oberman, 238.
183. ^ Martin Luther, Werke, VIII
184. ^ Martin Luther, Table Talk.
185. ^ Martin Luther, “On Justification CCXCIV”, Table Talk
186. ^ Mallett, 198; Marius, 220. The siege was lifted on 14 October 1529, which Luther saw as a divine miracle.
187. ^ Andrew Cunningham, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine and Death in Reformation Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-46701-2, 141; Mullett, 239–40; Marty, 164.
188. ^ From On War against the Turk, 1529, quoted in William P. Brown, The Ten Commandments: The Reciprocity of Faithfulness, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004, ISBN 0-664-22323-0, 258; Lohse, 61; Marty, 166.
189. ^ Marty, 166; Marius, 219; Brecht, 2:365, 368.
190. ^ Mullett, 238–39; Lohse, 59–61.
191. ^ Brecht, 2:364.
192. ^ Wilson, 257; Brecht, 2:364–65.
193. ^ Brecht, 2:365; Mullett, 239.
194. ^ Brecht, 3:354.
195. ^ Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-45908-7, 109; Mullett, 241; Marty, 163.
196. ^ From On war against the Turk, 1529, quoted in Roland E. Miller, Muslims and the Gospel, Minneapolis: Kirk House Publishers, 2006, ISBN 1-932688-07-2, 208.
197. ^ Brecht, 3:355.
198. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther’s Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations, ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 23–27. ISBN 978-0-9748529-6-6
199. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther’s Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations, ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 11–15. ISBN 978-0-9748529-6-6
200. ^ Cf. Luther’s Works 47:107–19. There he writes: “Dear God, should it be unbearable that the holy church confesses itself a sinner, believes in the forgiveness of sins, and asks for remission of sin in the Lord’s Prayer? How can one know what sin is without the law and conscience? And how will we learn what Christ is, what he did for us, if we do not know what the law is that he fulfilled for us and what sin is, for which he made satisfaction?” (112–13).
201. ^ Cf. Luther’s Works 41, 113–14, 143–44, 146–47. There he said about the antinomians: “They may be fine Easter preachers, but they are very poor Pentecost preachers, for they do not preach de sanctificatione et vivificatione Spiritus Sancti, “about the sanctification by the Holy Spirit,” but solely about the redemption of Jesus Christ” (114). “Having rejected and being unable to understand the Ten Commandments, … they see and yet they let the people go on in their public sins, without any renewal or reformation of their lives” (147).
202. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 33–36.
203. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 170–72
204. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 76, 105–07.
205. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 140, 157.
206. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 75, 104–05, 172–73.
207. ^ The “first use of the law,” accordingly, would be the law used as an external means of order and coercion in the political realm by means of bodily rewards and punishments.
208. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 110.
209. ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 35: “The law, therefore, cannot be eliminated, but remains, prior to Christ as not fulfilled, after Christ as to be fulfilled, although this does not happen perfectly in this life even by the justified. … This will happen perfectly first in the coming life.” Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal,, 43–44, 91–93.
210. ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3: 206. For a more extensive list of quotes from Luther on the topic of polygamy, see page 11 and following of Luther’s Authentic Voice on Polygamy Nathan R. Jastram, Concordia Theological Journal, Fall 2015/Spring 2016, Volume 3
211. ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:212.
212. ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:214.
213. ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:205–15.
214. ^ Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, 294.
215. ^ Singer, Tovia (30 April 2014). “A Closer Look at the “Crucifixion Psalm””. Outreach Judaism. Outreach Judaism. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
216. ^ Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, 109; Mullett, 242.
217. ^ Edwards, Mark. Luther’s Last Battles. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, 121.
218. ^ Brecht, 3:341–43; Mullett, 241; Marty, 172.
219. ^ Brecht, 3:334; Marty, 169; Marius, 235.
220. ^ Noble, Graham. “Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism,” History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2; Mullett, 246.
221. ^ Brecht, 3:341–47.
222. ^ Luther, On the Jews and their Lies, quoted in Michael, 112.
223. ^ Luther, Vom Schem Hamphoras, quoted in Michael, 113.
224. ^ Jump up to:^a b Gritsch, Eric W. (2012). Martin Luther’s Anti-Semitism: Against His Better Judgment. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-6676-9. pp. 86–87.
225. ^ Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, Luthers Werke. 47:268–71.
226. ^ Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, quoted in Robert Michael, “Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews,” Encounter 46 (Autumn 1985) No. 4:343–44.
227. ^ Jump up to:^a b Michael, 117.
228. ^ Quoted by Michael, 110.
229. ^ Michael, 117–18.
230. ^ Gritsch, 113–14; Michael, 117.
231. ^ “The assertion that Luther’s expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant anti-Judaism and modern racially oriented antisemitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion.” Johannes Wallmann, “The Reception of Luther’s Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th century”, Lutheran Quarterly, n.s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72–97.
232. ^ Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28; Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242; Shirer, William. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960).
233. ^ Grunberger, Richard. The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi German 1933–1945 (NP:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 465.
234. ^ Himmler wrote: “what Luther said and wrote about the Jews. No judgment could be sharper.”
235. ^ Ellis, Marc H. Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism” Archived 10 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine, (NP: Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004), Slide 14. “Hitler and the Holocaust”. Baylor University. Archived from the original on 22 April 2006. Retrieved 22 April 2006..
236. ^ See Noble, Graham. “Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism,” History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2.
237. ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe’s House Divided, 1490–1700. New York: Penguin Books Ltd, 2004, pp. 666–67.
238. ^ Bernd Nellessen, “Die schweigende Kirche: Katholiken und Judenverfolgung,” in Buttner (ed), Die Deutschen und die Jugendverfolg im Dritten Reich, p. 265, cited in Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners (Vintage, 1997)
239. ^ Brecht 3:351.
240. ^ Wallmann, 72–97.
241. ^ Siemon-Netto, The Fabricated Luther, 17–20.
242. ^ Siemon-Netto, “Luther and the Jews,” Lutheran Witness 123 (2004) No. 4:19, 21.
243. ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. “Martin Luther,” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Hillerbrand writes: “His strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history.”
244. ^ Bainton, Roland: Here I Stand, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, New American Library, 1983), p. 297
245. ^ For similar views, see:
     • Briese, Russell. “Martin Luther and the Jews,” Lutheran Forum (Summer 2000):32;
     • Brecht, Martin Luther, 3:351;
     • Edwards, Mark U. Jr. Luther’s Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983, 139;
     • Gritsch, Eric. “Was Luther Anti-Semitic?”, Christian History, No. 3:39, 12.;
     • Kittelson, James M., Luther the Reformer, 274;
     • Oberman, Heiko. The Roots of Anti-Semitism: In the Age of Renaissance and Reformation. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984, 102;
     • Rupp, Gordon. Martin Luther, 75;
     • Siemon-Netto, Uwe. Lutheran Witness, 19.
246. ^ Christopher J. Probst, Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany, Indiana University Press in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2012, ISBN 978-0-253-00100-9
247. ^ “Der Deutsche Luthertag 1933 und die Deutschen Christen” by Hansjörg Buss. In: Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte Vol. 26, No. 2
248. ^ Dr. Christopher Probst. “Martin Luther and “The Jews” A Reappraisal”. The Theologian. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
249. ^ Synod deplores and disassociates itself from Luther’s negative statements about the Jewish people and the use of these statements to incite anti-Lutheran sentiment, from a summary of Official Missouri Synod Doctrinal Statements Archived 25 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
250. ^ Lull, Timothy Martin Luther’s Basic Theological Writings, Second Edition (2005), p. 25
251. ^ See Merton P. Strommen et al., A Study of Generations (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing, 1972), p. 206. P. 208 also states “The clergy [ALC, LCA, or LCMS] are less likely to indicate anti-Semitic or racially prejudiced attitudes [compared to the laity].”
252. ^ Richard (Dick) Geary, “Who voted for the Nazis? (electoral history of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party)”, in History Today, 1 October 1998, Vol. 48, Issue 10, pp. 8–14
253. ^ “Special Interests at the Ballot Box? Religion and the Electoral Success of the Nazis” (PDF).
254. ^ Iversen OH (1996). “Martin Luther’s somatic diseases. A short life-history 450 years after his death”. Tidsskr. Nor. Legeforen. (in Norwegian). 116 (30): 3643–46. PMID 9019884.
255. ^ Edwards, 9.
256. ^ Spitz, 354.
257. ^ Die Beziehungen des Reformators Martin Luther zu Halle Archived 7 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine buergerstiftung-halle.de (in German)
258. ^ Luther, Martin. Sermon No. 8, “Predigt über Mat. 11:25, Eisleben gehalten,” 15 February 1546, Luthers Werke, Weimar 1914, 51:196–97.
259. ^ Poliakov, Léon. From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, Vanguard Press, p. 220.
260. ^ Mackinnon, James. Luther and the Reformation. Vol. IV, (New York): Russell & Russell, 1962, p. 204.
261. ^ Luther, Martin. Admonition against the Jews, added to his final sermon, cited in Oberman, Heiko. Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New York: Image Books, 1989, p. 294. A complete translation of Luther’s Admonition can be found in Wikisource. s:Warning Against the Jews (1546)
262. ^ Reeves, Michael. “The Unquenchable Flame”. Nottingham: IVP, 2009, p. 60.
263. ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:369–79.
264. ^ Jump up to:^a b McKim, Donald K. (2003). The Cambridge companion to Martin Luther. Cambridge companions to religion. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-521-01673-5.
265. ^ Kellermann, James A. (translator) “The Last Written Words of Luther: Holy Ponderings of the Reverend Father Doctor Martin Luther”. 16 February 1546.
266. ^ Original German and Latin of Luther’s last written words is: “Wir sein pettler. Hoc est verum.” Heinrich Bornkamm [de], Luther’s World of Thought, tr. Martin H. Bertram (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958), 291.
267. ^ “Slide Collection”. Archived from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
268. ^ Fairchild, Mary. “Martin Luther’s Great Accomplishments”. Learn Religions.
269. ^ “OurRedeermLCMS.org”. Archived from the original on 22 November 2003.
270. ^ McKim, Donald K (10 July 2003). The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther. ISBN 978-0-521-01673-5.
271. ^ SignatureToursInternational.comArchived 1 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
272. ^ Dorfpredigten: Biblische Einsichten aus Deutschlands ‘wildem Süden’. Ausgewählte Predigten aus den Jahren 1998 bis 2007 Teil II 2002–2007 by Thomas O.H. Kaiser, p. 354
273. ^ Martin Luther’s Death Mask on View at Museum in Halle, Germany artdaily.com
274. ^ Wall Street Journal, “The Monk Who Shook the World”, Richard J. Evans, 31 March 2017
275. ^ Roper, Lyndal (April 2010). “Martin Luther’s Body: The ‘Stout Doctor’ and His Biographers”. American Historical Review. 115 (2): 351–62. doi:10.1086/ahr.115.2.351. PMID 20509226.
276. ^ “The Calendar”. The Church of England. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
277. ^ Luther und der Schwan hamburger-reformation.de, retrieved 19 October 2019
278. ^ The Swan Lutheran Press, retrieved 6 July 2020
279. ^ The Lutheran Identity of Josquin’s Missa Pange Lingua (reference note 94) Early Music History, vol. 36, October 2017, pp. 193–249; CUP; retrieved 6 July 2020

Notes[edit source]

1. ^ Latin: “Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum” – The first printings of the Theses use an incipit rather than a title which summarizes the content. Luther usually called them “meine Propositiones” (my propositions). ^[34]

Sources[edit source]

• Cummings, Brian (2002). The Literary Culture of the Reformation: Grammar and Grace. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198187356.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-818735-6 – via Oxford Scholarship Online.
• Brecht, Martin; tr. James L. Schaaf (1985). Martin Luther. Vol. 1: His Road to Reformation, 1483–1521. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
• Brecht, Martin; tr. James L. Schaaf (1994). Martin Luther. Vol. 2: Shaping and Defining the Reformation, 1521–1532. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
• Brecht, Martin; tr. James L. Schaaf (1999). Martin Luther. Vol. 3: The Preservation of the Church, 1532–1546. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
• Mullett, Michael A. (2004). Martin Luther. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26168-5.
• Michael A. Mullett (1986) (1986). Luther. Methuen & Co (Lancashire Pamphlets). ISBN 978-0-415-10932-1.
• Wilson, Derek (2007). Out of the Storm: The Life and Legacy of Martin Luther. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-180001-7.

Further reading[edit source]

For works by and about Luther, see Martin Luther (resources) or Luther’s works at Wikisource.

• Atkinson, James (1968). Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism, in series, Pelican Book[s]. Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin Books. 352 pp.
• Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), online
• Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther: His Road to Reformation 1483–1521 (vol 1, 1985); Martin Luther 1521–1532: Shaping and Defining the Reformation (vol 2, 1994); Martin Luther The Preservation of the Church Vol 3 1532–1546 (1999), a standard scholarly biography excerpts
• Erikson, Erik H. (1958). Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History. New York: W.W. Norton.
• Dillenberger, John (1961). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. OCLC 165808.
• Friedenthal, Richard (1970). Luther, His Life and Times. Trans. from the German by John Nowell. First American ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. viii, 566 p. N.B.: Trans. of the author’s Luther, sein Leben und seine Zeit.
• Lull, Timothy (1989). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Minneapolis: Fortress. ISBN 978-0-8006-3680-7.
• Lull, Timothy F.; Nelson, Derek R. (2015). Resilient Reformer: The Life and Thought of Martin Luther. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress. ISBN 978-1-4514-9415-0 – via Project MUSE.
• Kolb, Robert; Dingel, Irene; Batka, Ľubomír (eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Martin Luther’s Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-19-960470-8.
• Luther, M. The Bondage of the Will. Eds. J.I. Packer and O.R. Johnson. Old Tappan, NJ: Revell, 1957. OCLC 22724565.
• Luther, Martin (1974). Selected Political Writings, ed. and with an introd. by J.M. Porter. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-1079-2
• Luther’s Works, 55 vols. Eds. H.T. Lehman and J. Pelikan. St Louis, Missouri, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1955–86. Also on CD-ROM. Minneapolis and St Louis: Fortress Press and Concordia Publishing House, 2002.
• Maritain, Jacques (1941). Three Reformers: Luther, Descartes, Rousseau. New York: C. Scribner’s Sons. N.B.: Reprint of the ed. published by Muhlenberg Press.
• Nettl, Paul (1948). Luther and Music, trans. by Frida Best and Ralph Wood. New York: Russell & Russell, 1967, cop. 1948. vii, 174 p.
• Reu, Johann Michael (1917). Thirty-five Years of Luther Research. Chicago: Wartburg Publishing House.
• Schalk, Carl F. (1988). Luther on Music: Paradigms of Praise. Saint Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House. ISBN 0-570-01337-2
• Stang, William (1883). The Life of Martin Luther. Eighth ed. New York: Pustet & Co. N.B.: This is a work of Roman Catholic polemical nature.
• Warren Washburn Florer, Ph.D. (1912, 2012). Luther’s Use of the Pre-Lutheran Versions of the Bible: Article 1, George Wahr, The Ann Arbor Press, Ann Arbor, Mich. Reprint 2012: Nabu Press, ISBN 978-1-278-81819-1

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Vladimir I or Volodymyr I (Old East Slavic: Володимѣръ Свѧтославичь, Volodiměrъ Svętoslavičь;^[a] Russian: Владимир Святославич, Vladimir Svyatoslavich; Ukrainian: Володимир Святославич, Volodymyr Sviatoslavych; Old Norse Valdamarr gamli;^[6] c. 958 – 15 July 1015), called the Great, was Prince of Novgorod, Grand Prince of Kiev, and ruler of Kievan Rus’ from 980 to 1015.^[7][8]

Vladimir’s father was Prince Sviatoslav I of Kiev of the Rurik dynasty.^[9] After the death of his father in 972, Vladimir, who was then prince of Novgorod, was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after his brother Yaropolk murdered his other brother Oleg of Drelinia and conquered Rus’. In Sweden, with the help of his relative Ladejarl Håkon Sigurdsson, ruler of Norway, he assembled a Varangian army and reconquered Novgorod from Yaropolk.^[10] By 980, Vladimir had consolidated the Rus realm from modern-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine to the Baltic Sea and had solidified the frontiers against incursions of Bulgarians, Baltic tribes and Eastern nomads. Originally a follower of Slavic paganism, Vladimir converted to Christianity in 988^[11][12][13] and Christianized the Kievan Rus’.^[9] He is thus also known as Saint Vladimir.

Contents

• 1Rise to power
• 2Years of pagan rule
• 3Christianization of the Kievan Rus’
• 4Christian reign
• 5Family
• 6Significance and legacy
• 7See also
• 8Notes
• 9References
• 10External links

Rise to power[edit source]

Born in 958, Vladimir was the natural son and youngest son of Sviatoslav I of Kiev by his housekeeper Malusha.^[14] Malusha is described in the Norse sagas as a prophetess who lived to the age of 100 and was brought from her cave to the palace to predict the future. Malusha’s brother Dobrynya was Vladimir’s tutor and most trusted advisor. Hagiographic tradition of dubious authenticity also connects his childhood with the name of his grandmother, Olga of Kiev, who was Christian and governed the capital during Sviatoslav’s frequent military campaigns.

Transferring his capital to Pereyaslavets in 969, Sviatoslav designated Vladimir ruler of Novgorod the Great but gave Kiev to his legitimate son Yaropolk. After Sviatoslav’s death at the hands of the Pechenegs in 972, a fratricidal war erupted in 976 between Yaropolk and his younger brother Oleg, ruler of the Drevlians. In 977, Vladimir fled to his kinsman Haakon Sigurdsson, ruler of Norway, collecting as many Norse warriors as he could to assist him to recover Novgorod. On his return the next year, he marched against Yaropolk. On his way to Kiev he sent ambassadors to Rogvolod (Norse: Ragnvald), prince of Polotsk, to sue for the hand of his daughter Rogneda (Norse: Ragnhild). The high-born princess refused to affiance herself to the son of a bondswoman (and was betrothed to Yaropolk), so Vladimir attacked Polotsk, slew Rogvolod, and took Ragnhild by force, slaying her parents.^[14][15] Polotsk was a key fortress on the way to Kiev, and capturing Polotsk and Smolensk facilitated the taking of Kiev in 978, where he slew Yaropolk by treachery and was proclaimed knyaz of all Kievan Rus.^[16]

Years of pagan rule[edit source]

Vladimir continued to expand his territories beyond his father’s extensive domain. In 981 he seized the Cherven towns from the Poles; in 981–982 he suppressed a Vyatichi rebellion; in 983 he subdued the Yatvingians; in 984 he conquered the Radimichs; and in 985 he conducted a military campaign against the Volga Bulgars,^[17][18] planting numerous fortresses and colonies on his way.^[14]

Although Christianity had spread in the region under Oleg’s rule,^{[citation needed]} Vladimir had remained a thoroughgoing pagan, taking eight hundred concubines (along with numerous wives) and erecting pagan statues and shrines to gods.^[19]

He may have attempted to reform Slavic paganism in an attempt to identify himself with the various gods worshipped by his subjects. He built a pagan temple on a hill in Kiev dedicated to six gods: Perun—the god of thunder and war, “a Norse god favored by members of the prince’s druzhina (military retinue)”; Slav gods Stribog and Dazhd’bog; Mokosh—a goddess representing Mother Nature “worshipped by Finnish tribes”; Khors and Simargl, “both of which had Iranian origins, were included, probably to appeal to the Poliane.”^[20]

Open abuse of the deities that most people in Rus’ revered triggered widespread indignation. A mob killed the Christian Fyodor and his son Ioann (later, after the overall Christianisation of Kievan Rus’, people came to regard these two as the first Christian martyrs in Rus’, and the Orthodox Church^{[citation needed]} set a day to commemorate them, 25 July). Immediately after the murder of Fyodor and Ioann, early medieval Rus’ saw persecutions against Christians, many of whom escaped or concealed their belief.^[b]

However, Prince Vladimir mused over the incident long after, and not least for political considerations. According to the early Slavic chronicle, the Tale of Bygone Years, which describes life in Kievan Rus’ up to the year 1110, he sent his envoys throughout the world to assess first-hand the major religions of the time: Islam, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Byzantine Orthodoxy. They were most impressed with their visit to Constantinople, saying, “We knew not whether we were in Heaven or on Earth… We only know that God dwells there among the people, and their service is fairer than the ceremonies of other nations.”^[21]

Christianization of the Kievan Rus'[edit source]

Main article: Christianization of Kievan Rus’The Baptism of Saint Prince Vladimir, by Viktor Vasnetsov (1890)

The Primary Chronicle reports that in the year 987, after consultation with his boyars, Vladimir the Great sent envoys to study the religions of the various neighboring nations whose representatives had been urging him to embrace their respective faiths. The result is described by the chronicler Nestor. Of the Muslim Bulgarians of the Volga the envoys reported there is no gladness among them, only sorrow and a great stench.^[14] He also reported that Islam was undesirable due to its prohibition of alcoholic beverages and pork.^[22] Vladimir remarked on the occasion: “Drinking is the joy of all Rus’. We cannot exist without that pleasure.”^[22] Ukrainian and Russian sources also describe Vladimir consulting with Jewish envoys and questioning them about their religion, but ultimately rejecting it as well, saying that their loss of Jerusalem was evidence that they had been abandoned by God.

His emissaries also visited pre-schism Latin Rite Christian and Eastern Rite Christian missionaries.^{[citation needed]} Ultimately Vladimir settled on Eastern Christianity. In the churches of the Germans his emissaries saw no beauty; but at Constantinople, where the full festival ritual of the Byzantine Church was set in motion to impress them, they found their ideal: “We no longer knew whether we were in heaven or on earth”, they reported, describing a majestic Divine Liturgy in Hagia Sophia, “nor such beauty, and we know not how to tell of it.” Vladimir was impressed by this account of his envoys.^[14]

Saint Vladimir Monument on Saint Vladimir Hill in Kyiv, near the place of the mass baptism of Kyiv people

In 988, having taken the town of Chersonesos in Crimea, he boldly negotiated for the hand of emperor Basil II‘s sister, Anna.^[23] Never before had a Byzantine imperial princess, and one “born in the purple” at that, married a barbarian, as matrimonial offers of French kings and German emperors had been peremptorily rejected. In short, to marry the 27-year-old princess to a pagan Slav seemed impossible. Vladimir was baptized at Chersonesos, however, taking the Christian name of Basil out of compliment to his imperial brother-in-law; the sacrament was followed by his wedding to Anna. Returning to Kiev in triumph, he destroyed pagan monuments and established many churches, starting with a church dedicated to St. Basil,^[24] and the Church of the Tithes (989).^[14]

Arab sources, both Muslim and Christian, present a different story of Vladimir’s conversion. Yahya of Antioch, al-Rudhrawari, al-Makin, Al-Dimashqi, and ibn al-Athir all give essentially the same account.^[25] In 987, Bardas Sclerus and Bardas Phocas revolted against the Byzantine emperor Basil II. Both rebels briefly joined forces, but then Bardas Phocas proclaimed himself emperor on 14 September 987. Basil II turned to the Kievan Rus’ for assistance, even though they were considered enemies at that time. Vladimir agreed, in exchange for a marital tie; he also agreed to accept Christianity as his religion and to Christianize his people. When the wedding arrangements were settled, Vladimir dispatched 6,000 troops to the Byzantine Empire, and they helped to put down the revolt.^[26]

In 988 and 991, he baptized Pecheneg princes Metiga and Kuchug, respectively.^[27]

Christian reign[edit source]

The Pontic steppes, c. 1015

Vladimir then formed a great council out of his boyars and set his twelve sons over his subject principalities.^[14] According to the Primary Chronicle, he founded the city of Belgorod in 991. In 992, he went on a campaign against the Croats, most likely the White Croats that lived on the border of modern Ukraine. This campaign was cut short by the attacks of the Pechenegs on and around Kiev.

In his later years he lived in a relative peace with his other neighbors: Boleslav I of Poland, Stephen I of Hungary, and Andrikh the Czech (a questionable character mentioned in A Tale of the Bygone Years). After Anna’s death, he married again, likely to a granddaughter of Otto the Great.

In 1014, his son Yaroslav the Wise stopped paying tribute. Vladimir decided to chastise the insolence of his son and began gathering troops against him. Vladimir fell ill, however, most likely of old age, and died at Berestove, near modern-day Kyiv. The various parts of his dismembered body were distributed among his numerous sacred foundations and were venerated as relics.^[14]

During his Christian reign, Vladimir lived the teachings of the Bible through acts of charity. He would hand out food and drink to the less fortunate, and made an effort to go out to the people who could not reach him. His work was based on the impulse to help one’s neighbors by sharing the burden of carrying their cross.^[28] He founded numerous churches, including the Desyatinnaya Tserkov (Church, or Cathedral, of the Tithes) (989), established schools, protected the poor and introduced ecclesiastical courts. He lived mostly at peace with his neighbours, the incursions of the Pechenegs alone disturbing his tranquillity.^[14]

Family[edit source]

Main article: Family life and children of Vladimir IVladimir and Rogneda (1770)

showvteRurikids (IX—XI century)

The fate of all Vladimir’s daughters, whose number is around nine, is uncertain. His wives, concubines, and their children were as follows:

• Olava or Allogia (Varangian or Czech), speculative; she might have been mother of Vysheslav while others claim that it is a confusion with Helena Lekapene^{[citation needed]}
  • Vysheslav (c. 977 – c. 1010), Prince of Novgorod (988–1010)
• a widow of Yaropolk I, a Greek nun
  • Sviatopolk the Accursed (born c. 979), possibly the surviving son of Yaropolk
• Rogneda (the daughter of Rogvolod); later upon divorce she entered a convent taking the Christian name of Anastasia
  • Izyaslav of Polotsk (born c. 979, Kiev), Prince of Polotsk (989–1001)
  • Yaroslav the Wise (no earlier than 983), Prince of Rostov^[29] (988–1010), Prince of Novgorod (1010–1034), Grand Prince of Kiev (1016–1018, 1019–1054). Possibly he was a son of Anna rather than Rogneda. Another interesting fact is that he was younger than Sviatopolk according to the words of Boris in the Tale of Bygone Years and not as it was officially known.
  • Vsevolod (c. 984 – 1013), possibly the Swedish Prince Wissawald of Volhynia (c. 1000), was perhaps the first husband of Estrid Svendsdatter
  • Mstislav, distinct from Mstislav of Chernigov, possibly died as an infant, if he was ever born
  • Mstislav of Chernigov (born c. 983), Prince of Tmutarakan (990–1036), Prince of Chernigov (1024–1036), other sources claim him to be the son of other mothers (Adela, Malfrida, or some other Bulgarian wife)
  • Predslava, a concubine of Bolesław I Chrobry according to Gesta principum Polonorum
  • Premislava, (died 1015), some sources state that she was a wife of the Duke Laszlo (Vladislav) “the Bald” of the Arpadians
  • Mstislava, in 1018 was taken by Bolesław I Chrobry among the other daughters
• Bulgarian Adela, some sources claim that Adela is not necessarily Bulgarian as Boris and Gleb may have been born from some other wife
  • Boris (born c. 986), Prince of Rostov (c. 1010 – 1015), remarkable is the fact that the Rostov Principality as well as the Principality of Murom used to border the territory of the Volga Bolgars
  • Gleb (born c. 987), Prince of Murom (1013–1015), as is Boris, Gleb is also claimed to be the son of Anna Porphyrogenita
  • Stanislav (born c. 985 – 1015), Prince of Smolensk (988–1015), possibly of another wife and the fate of whom is not certain
  • Sudislav (died 1063), Prince of Pskov (1014–1036), possibly of another wife, but he is mentioned in Nikon‘s Chronicles. He spent 35 years in prison and later became a monk.
• Malfrida
  • Sviatoslav (c. 982 – 1015), Prince of Drevlians (990–1015)
• Anna Porphyrogenita
  • Theofana, a wife of Novgorod posadnik Ostromir, a grandson of semi-legendary Dobrynya (highly doubtful is the fact of her being Anna’s offspring)
• a granddaughter of Otto the Great (possibly Rechlinda Otona [Regelindis])
  • Maria Dobroniega of Kiev (born c. 1012), the Duchess of Poland (1040–1087), married around 1040 to Casimir I the Restorer, Duke of Poland, her maternity as daughter of this wife is deduced from her apparent age
• other possible family
  • Vladimirovna, an out-of-marriage daughter (died 1044), married to Bernard, Margrave of the Nordmark.
  • Pozvizd (born prior to 988), a son of Vladimir according to Hustyn Chronicles. He, possibly, was the Prince Khrisokhir mentioned by Niketas Choniates.

Significance and legacy[edit source]

Volodymyr the Great portrait on obverse of ₴1 bill circa 2006Volodymyr the Great portrait on reverse of ₴1 coin circa 2018

The Eastern Orthodox, Byzantine Rite Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches celebrate the feast day of St. Vladimir on 15/28 July.^[30][31]

The town Volodymyr in north-western Ukraine was founded by Vladimir and is named after him.^[32] The foundation of another town, Vladimir in Russia, is usually attributed to Vladimir Monomakh. However some researchers argue that it was also founded by Vladimir the Great.^[33]

St Volodymyr’s Cathedral, one of the largest cathedrals in Kyiv, is dedicated to Vladimir the Great, as was originally the Kyiv University. The Imperial Russian Order of St. Vladimir and Saint Vladimir’s Orthodox Theological Seminary in the United States are also named after him.

The memory of Vladimir was also kept alive by innumerable Russian folk ballads and legends, which refer to him as Krasno Solnyshko (the Fair Sun, or the Red Sun; Красно Солнышко in Russian). The Varangian period of Eastern Slavic history ceases with Vladimir, and the Christian period begins. The appropriation of Kievan Rus’ as part of national history has also been a topic of contention in Ukrainophile vs. Russophile schools of historiography since the Soviet era.^[34] Today, he is regarded as a symbol in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus.

All branches of the economy prospered under him.^[35] He minted coins and regulated foreign affairs with other countries, such as trade, bringing in Greek wines, Baghdad spices, and Arab horses for the markets of Kiev.

• Vladimir the Great on the Millennium of Russia monument in Novgorod
• Monument to Vladimir the Great and the monk Fyodor at Pushkin Park in Vladimir, Russia
• Monument to Volodymyr the Great in Kyiv
• Statue in London: “St Volodymyr – Ruler of Ukraine, 980–1015, erected by Ukrainians in Great Britain in 1988 to celebrate the establishment of Christianity in Ukraine by St. Volodymir in 988″
• St Vladimir in Gdańsk, Poland. Celebrated on 2015 on the occasion of the millennium since the death of the baptist of Kievan Rus. Built with the help of the Ukrainian community of Gdańsk and the Ukrainian diaspora of the world.
• St Vladimir the Great Monument in Belgorod, Russia
• Vladimir the Great Monument in Moscow, Russia near the Kremlin

See also[edit source]

• Saints portal

• Order of Saint Vladimir
• List of Russian rulers
• List of Ukrainian rulers
• Family life and children of Vladimir I
• List of people known as The Great
• Saint Vladimir Monument in Kyiv (1853)
• Monument to Vladimir the Great (Moscow) in 2016
• Prince Vladimir, Russian animated feature film (2006)
• Viking, Russian historical film (2016)

Notes[edit source]

1. ^ Volodiměrъ is the East Slavic form of the given name; this form was influenced and partially replaced by the Old Bulgarian (Old Church Slavonic) form Vladiměrъ (by folk etymology later also Vladimirъ; in modern East Slavic, the given name is rendered Belarusian: Уладзiмiр Uladzimir, Russian: Владимир Vladimir, Ukrainian: Володимир Volodymyr. See Vladimir (name) for details.
2. ^ In 983, after another of his military successes, Prince Vladimir and his army thought it necessary to sacrifice human lives to the gods. A lot was cast and it fell on a youth, Ioann by name, the son of a Christian, Fyodor. His father stood firmly against his son being sacrificed to the idols. Further, he tried to show the pagans the futility of their faith: “Your gods are just plain wood: it is here now but it may rot into oblivion tomorrow; your gods neither eat, nor drink, nor talk and are made by human hand from wood; whereas there is only one God — He is worshiped by Greeks and He created heaven and earth; and your gods? They have created nothing, for they have been created themselves; never will I give my son to the devils!”^{[citation needed]}

References[edit source]

1. ^ Kevin Alan Brook (2006). The Jews of Khazaria (2nd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-442203-02-0.
2. ^ Александров А. А. Ольгинская топонимика, выбутские сопки и руссы в Псковской земле // Памятники средневековой культуры. Открытия и версии. СПб., 1994. С. 22—31.
3. ^ Dyba, Yury (2012). Aleksandrovych V.; Voitovych, Leontii; et al. (eds.). Історично-геогра фічний контекст літописного повідомлення про народження князя Володимира Святославовича: локалізація будятиного села [Historical-geographic figurative context of the chronicled report about the birth of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich: localisation of a busy village] (PDF). Княжа доба: історія і культура [Era of the Princes: history and culture] (in Ukrainian). Lviv. 6. ISSN 2221-6294. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
4. ^ Harvard Ukrainian studies, Vol. 12–13, p. 190, Harvard Ukrainian studies, 1990
5. ^ “Notable Lutheran Saints”. Resurrectionpeople.org. Archived from the original on 16 May 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
6. ^ Fagrskinna ch. 21 (ed. Finnur Jónsson 1902–8, p. 108).
7. ^ Companion to the Calendar: A Guide to the Saints and Mysteries of the Christian Calendar, p. 105, Mary Ellen Hynes, Ed. Peter Mazar, LiturgyTrainingPublications, 1993
8. ^ National geographic, Vol. 167, p. 290, National Geographic Society, 1985
9. ^ Jump up to:^a b Vladimir I (Grand Prince of Kiev) at the Encyclopædia Britannica
10. ^ Den hellige Vladimir av Kiev (~956–1015), Den katolske kirke website
11. ^ Vladimir the Great, Encyclopedia of Ukraine
12. ^ Saint Vladimir the Baptizer: Wetting cultural appetites for the Gospel, Dr. Alexander Roman, Ukrainian Orthodoxy website
13. ^ Ukrainian Catholic Church: part 1., The Free Library
14. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f g h i} Bain 1911.
15. ^ Levin, Eve (1 January 1995). Sex and Society in the World of the Orthodox Slavs 900–1700. Cornell University Press. doi:10.7591/9781501727627. ISBN 978-1-5017-2762-7.
16. ^ Den hellige Vladimir av Kiev (~956–1015), Den Katolske Kirke
17. ^ Janet Martin. Medieval Russia. Cambridge University Press. 1995. pp. 5, 15, 20.
18. ^ John Channon, Robert Hudson. The Penguin historical atlas of Russia. Viking. 1995. p. 23.
19. ^ “Although Christianity in Kiev existed before Vladimir’s time, he had remained a pagan, accumulated about seven wives, established temples, and, it is said, taken part in idolatrous rites involving human sacrifice.” (Britannica online)
20. ^ Janet, Martin (2007). Medieval Russia, 980-1584 (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9780511811074. OCLC 761647272.
21. ^ Readings in Russian Civilization, Volume 1: Russia Before Peter…, University of Chicago Press, 2009.
22. ^ Jump up to:^a b Moss 2002, p. 18.
23. ^ The Earliest Mediaeval Churches of Kiev, Samuel H. Cross, H. V. Morgilevski and K. J. Conant, Speculum, Vol. 11, No. 4 (Oct., 1936), 479.
24. ^ The Earliest Mediaeval Churches of Kiev, Samuel H. Cross, H. V. Morgilevski and K. J. Conant, Speculum, 481.
25. ^ Ibn al-Athir dates these events to 985 or 986 in his The Complete History
26. ^ “Rus”. Encyclopaedia of Islam
27. ^ Curta, Florin (12 December 2007). The Other Europe in the Middle Ages. Brill. ISBN 9789047423560. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
28. ^ Obolensky, Alexander (1993). “From First to Third Millennium: The Social Christianity of St. Vladimir of Kiev”. Cross Currents.
29. ^ Pchelov, E.V. (2002). Rurikovichi: Istoriya dinastii (Online edition (No longer available) ed.). Moscow.
30. ^ “St. Vladimir”. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
31. ^ День Св. Володимира Великого, християнського правителя (in Ukrainian). Ukrainian Lutheran Church. 28 July 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
32. ^ Henryk Paszkiewicz. The making of the Russian nation. Greenwood Press. 1977. Cracow 1996, pp. 77–79.
33. ^ С. В. Шевченко (ред.). К вопросу о дате основания г. Владимира, ТОО “Местное время”, 1992. (S. V. Shevchenko (ed.). On the foundation date of Vladimir. in Russian)
34. ^ A tale of two Vladimirs, The Economist (5 November 2015)
    From one Vladimir to another: Putin unveils huge statue in Moscow, The Guardian (5 November 2015)
    Putin unveils ‘provocative’ Moscow statue of St Vladimir, BBC News (5 November 2016)
35. ^ Volkoff, Vladimir (2011). Vladimir the Russian Viking. New York: Overlook Press.

• Golden, P. B. (2006) “Rus.” Encyclopaedia of Islam (Brill Online). Eds.: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill.
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Bain, Robert Nisbet (1911). “Vladimir, St“. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 168.
• Some historical analysis and political insights on the state affairs of Vladimir the Great (in Russian)
• Moss, Walter (2002). A history of Russia. London: Anthem. ISBN 978-1-84331-023-5. OCLC 53250380.

External links[edit source]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vladimir I of Kiev.

• Velychenko, Stephen, How Valdamarr Sveinaldsson got to Moscow (krytyka.com), 9 November 2015.

Vladimir I of KievRurikovichBorn: 958 Died: 15 July 1015
Regnal titles
Preceded by?	Prince of Novgorod 969–977	Succeeded by?
Preceded byYaropolk I Sviatoslavich	Grand Prince of Kiev 980–1015	Succeeded bySviatopolk I
Titles in pretence
Preceded byOleg of the Drevlyans	Prince of Kiev 977–980	Succeeded byVysheslav Vladimirovich

The 14th Dalai Lama^[a] (spiritual name Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso, known as Tenzin Gyatso; né Lhamo Thondup),^[b] known as Gyalwa Rinpoche to the Tibetan people, is the current Dalai Lama, the highest spiritual leader and former head of state of Tibet.^[6] Born on 6 July 1935, or in the Tibetan calendar, in the Wood-Pig Year, 5th month, 5th day,^[7] he is considered a living Bodhisattva; specifically, an emanation of Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva) . He is also the leader of the Gelug school, the newest school of Tibetan Buddhism,^[8] formally headed by the Ganden Tripa. The central government of Tibet, the Ganden Phodrang, invested the Dalai Lama with temporal duties until his exile in 1959.^[9][10] On 29 April 1959, the Dalai Lama established the independent Tibetan government in exile in the north Indian hill station of Mussoorie, which then moved in May 1960 to Dharamshala, where he resides. He retired as political head in 2011 to make way for a democratic government, the Central Tibetan Administration.^[11][12][13]

The 14th Dalai Lama was born to a farming family in Taktser (Hongya Village), in the traditional Tibetan region of Amdo (administratively Qinghai Province, Republic of China).^[4][5] He was selected as the tulku of the 13th Dalai Lama in 1937 and formally recognized as the 14th Dalai Lama in a public declaration near the town of Bumchen in 1939.^[14] As with the recognition process for his predecessor, a Golden Urn selection process was not used.^{[15][16][17][18]} His enthronement ceremony was held in Lhasa on 22 February 1940 and he eventually assumed full temporal (political) duties on 17 November 1950, at the age of 15, after the People’s Republic of China’s occupation of Tibet.^[14] The Tibetan government administered the historic Tibetan regions of Ü-Tsang, Kham and Amdo.^[19]

During the 1959 Tibetan uprising, the Dalai Lama escaped to India, where he currently lives in exile while remaining the most important spiritual leader of Tibet. The Dalai Lama advocates for the welfare of Tibetans while continuing to call for the Middle Way Approach to negotiations with China for the autonomy of the nation and the protection of its culture, including for the religious rights of Tibetans.

The Dalai Lama also meets with other world leaders, religious leaders, philosophers and scientists, and travels worldwide giving Tibetan Buddhist teachings. His work includes focus on the environment, economics, women’s rights, nonviolence, interfaith dialogue, physics, astronomy, Buddhism and science, cognitive neuroscience,^[20][21][22] reproductive health and sexuality.

Along with his teachings on Tibetan Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, the Dalai Lama’s Kalachakra teachings and initiations are international events.

He is the chief Patron of the Maha Bodhi Society of India, conferred upon him at the 2008 Annual General Meeting of the Maha Bodhi Society of India.^[23]

The Dalai Lama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, and the US Congressional Gold Medal in 2006. Time magazine named the Dalai Lama one of the “Children of Mahatma Gandhi” and Gandhi’s spiritual heir to nonviolence.^[24][25]

Contents

• 1Early life and background
• 2Life as the Dalai Lama
  • 2.1Cooperation and conflicts with the People’s Republic of China
  • 2.2Exile to India
  • 2.3International advocacy
  • 2.4Teaching activities, public talks
  • 2.5Interfaith dialogue
  • 2.6Interest in science, and Mind and Life Institute
  • 2.7Personal meditation practice
• 3Social stances
  • 3.1Tibetan independence
  • 3.2Abortion
  • 3.3Death penalty
  • 3.4Democracy, nonviolence, religious harmony, and Tibet’s relationship with India
  • 3.5Diet and animal welfare
  • 3.6Economics and political stance
  • 3.7Environment
  • 3.8Sexuality
  • 3.9Women’s rights
  • 3.10Health
    • 3.10.1Response to COVID-19
  • 3.11Immigration
• 4Retirement and succession plans
• 5CIA Tibetan program
• 6Criticism
  • 6.1Ties to India
  • 6.2Shugden controversy
  • 6.3Gedhun Choekyi Nyima
• 7Public image
  • 7.1In the media
  • 7.2Awards and honours
• 8Publications
• 9Discography
• 10See also
• 11Notes
• 12Reference
  • 12.1Citations
  • 12.2Sources
• 13External links

Early life and background[edit source]

Lhamo Thondup^[26] was born on 6 July 1935 to a farming and horse trading family in the small hamlet of Taktser,^[c] or Chija Tagtser^[31] (Chinese: 红崖村; pinyin: Hóngyá Cūn; lit. ‘Redcliff Village’), at the edge of the traditional Tibetan region of Amdo in Qinghai Province.^[27]

He was one of seven siblings to survive childhood and one of the three reincarnated Rinpoches in the same family. His eldest sister Tsering Dolma, was sixteen years his senior and was midwife to his mother at his birth.^[32] She would accompany him into exile and found Tibetan Children’s Villages.^[33] His eldest brother, Thupten Jigme Norbu, had been recognised at the age of three by the 13th Dalai Lama as the reincarnation of the high Lama, the 6th Taktser Rinpoche.^[34] His fifth brother, Tendzin Choegyal, had been recognised as the 16th Ngari Rinpoche.^{[citation needed]} His sister, Jetsun Pema, spent most of her adult life on the Tibetan Children’s Villages project.^{[citation needed]} The Dalai Lama has said that his first language was “a broken Xining language which was (a dialect of) the Chinese language“, a form of Central Plains Mandarin, and his family speak neither Amdo Tibetan nor Lhasa Tibetan.^[35][36][37]The Dalai Lama as a child

After the demise of the 13th Dalai Lama, in 1935, the Ordinance of Lama Temple Management (Chinese: 管理喇嘛寺廟條例)^[38][39] was published by the Central Government. In 1936, the Method of Reincarnation of Lamas (Chinese: 喇嘛轉世辦法)^[40][41] was published by the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission of the Central Government. Article 3 states that death of lamas, including the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama, should be reported to the Commission, soul boys should be located and checked by the Commission, and a lot-drawing ceremony with the Golden Urn system should be held. Article 6 states that local governments should invite officials from the Central Government to take care of the sitting-in-the-bed ceremony. Article 7 states that soul boys should not be sought from current lama families. Article 7 echoes what the Qianlong Emperor described in The Discourse of Lama to eliminate greedy families with multiple reincarnated rinpoches, lamas.^[42] Based on custom and regulation, the regent was actively involved in the search for the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama.

Following reported signs and visions, three search teams were sent out to the north-east, the east, and the south-east to locate the new incarnation when the boy who was to become the 14th Dalai Lama was about two years old.^[43] Sir Basil Gould, British delegate to Lhasa in 1936, related his account of the north-eastern team to Sir Charles Alfred Bell, former British resident in Lhasa and friend of the 13th Dalai Lama. Amongst other omens, the head of the embalmed body of the thirteenth Dalai Lama, at first facing south-east, had turned to face the north-east, indicating, it was interpreted, the direction in which his successor would be found. The Regent, Reting Rinpoche, shortly afterwards had a vision at the sacred lake of Lhamo La-tso which he interpreted as Amdo being the region to search. This vision was also interpreted to refer to a large monastery with a gilded roof and turquoise tiles, and a twisting path from there to a hill to the east, opposite which stood a small house with distinctive eaves. The team, led by Kewtsang Rinpoche, went first to meet the Panchen Lama, who had been stuck in Jyekundo, in northern Kham.^[43] The Panchen Lama had been investigating births of unusual children in the area ever since the death of the 13th Dalai Lama.^[44] He gave Kewtsang the names of three boys whom he had discovered and identified as candidates. Within a year the Panchen Lama had died. Two of his three candidates were crossed off the list but the third, a “fearless” child, the most promising, was from Taktser village, which, as in the vision, was on a hill, at the end of a trail leading to Taktser from the great Kumbum Monastery with its gilded, turquoise roof. There they found a house, as interpreted from the vision—the house where Lhamo Dhondup lived.^[43][44]

The 14th Dalai Lama claims that at the time, the village of Taktser stood right on the “real border” between the region of Amdo and China.^[45] According to the search lore, when the team visited, posing as pilgrims, its leader, a Sera Lama, pretended to be the servant and sat separately in the kitchen. He held an old mala that had belonged to the 13th Dalai Lama, and the boy Lhamo Dhondup, aged two, approached and asked for it. The monk said “if you know who I am, you can have it.” The child said “Sera Lama, Sera Lama” and spoke with him in a Lhasa accent, in a dialect the boy’s mother could not understand. The next time the party returned to the house, they revealed their real purpose and asked permission to subject the boy to certain tests. One test consisted of showing him various pairs of objects, one of which had belonged to the 13th Dalai Lama and one which had not. In every case, he chose the Dalai Lama’s own objects and rejected the others.^[46]House where the 14th Dalai Lama was born in Taktser, Amdo

From 1936 the Hui ‘Ma Clique‘ Muslim warlord Ma Bufang ruled Qinghai as its governor under the nominal authority of the Republic of China central government.^[47] According to an interview with the 14th Dalai Lama, in the 1930s, Ma Bufang had seized this north-east corner of Amdo in the name of Chiang Kai-shek‘s weak government and incorporated it into the Chinese province of Qinghai.^[48] Before going to Taktser, Kewtsang had gone to Ma Bufang to pay his respects.^[44] When Ma Bufang heard a candidate had been found in Taktser, he had the family brought to him in Xining.^[49] He first demanded proof that the boy was the Dalai Lama, but the Lhasa government, though informed by Kewtsang that this was the one, told Kewtsang to say he had to go to Lhasa for further tests with other candidates. They knew that if he was declared to be the Dalai Lama, the Chinese government would insist on sending a large army escort with him, which would then stay in Lhasa and refuse to budge.^[50] Ma Bufang, together with Kumbum Monastery, then refused to allow him to depart unless he was declared to be the Dalai Lama, but withdrew this demand in return for 100,000 Chinese dollars ransom in silver to be shared amongst them, to let them go to Lhasa.^[50][51] Kewtsang managed to raise this, but the family was only allowed to move from Xining to Kumbum when a further demand was made for another 330,000 dollars ransom: one hundred thousand each for government officials, the commander-in-chief, and the Kumbum Monastery; twenty thousand for the escort; and only ten thousand for Ma Bufang himself, he said.^[52]

Two years of diplomatic wrangling followed before it was accepted by Lhasa that the ransom had to be paid to avoid the Chinese getting involved and escorting him to Lhasa with a large army.^[53] Meanwhile, the boy was kept at Kumbum where two of his brothers were already studying as monks and recognised incarnate lamas.^[54] The payment of 300,000 silver dollars was then advanced by Muslim traders en route to Mecca in a large caravan via Lhasa. They paid Ma Bufang on behalf of the Tibetan government against promissory notes to be redeemed, with interest, in Lhasa.^[54][55] The 20,000-dollar fee for an escort was dropped, since the Muslim merchants invited them to join their caravan for protection; Ma Bufang sent 20 of his soldiers with them and was paid from both sides since the Chinese government granted him another 50,000 dollars for the expenses of the journey. Furthermore, the Indian government helped the Tibetans raise the ransom funds by affording them import concessions.^[55]

Released from Kumbum, on 21 July 1939 the party travelled across Tibet on a journey to Lhasa in the large Muslim caravan with Lhamo Dhondup, now 4 years old, riding with his brother Lobsang in a special palanquin carried by two mules, two years after being discovered. As soon as they were out of Ma Bufang’s area, he was officially declared to be the 14th Dalai Lama by the Central Government of Tibet, and after ten weeks of travel he arrived in Lhasa on 8 October 1939.^[56] The ordination (pabbajja) and giving of the monastic name of Tenzin Gyatso were handled by Reting Rinpoche. There was very limited Chinese involvement at this time.^[57]

Tibetan Buddhists normally refer to him as Yishin Norbu (Wish-Fulfilling Gem), Kyabgon (Saviour), or just Kundun (Presence). His devotees, as well as much of the Western world, often call him His Holiness the Dalai Lama, the style employed on the Dalai Lama’s website. According to the Dalai Lama, he had a succession of tutors in Tibet including Reting Rinpoche, Tathag Rinpoche, Ling Rinpoche and lastly Trijang Rinpoche, who became junior tutor when he was nineteen.^[58] At the age of 11 he met the Austrian mountaineer Heinrich Harrer, who became his videographer and tutor about the world outside Lhasa. The two remained friends until Harrer’s death in 2006.^[59]

In 1959, at the age of 23, he took his final examination at Lhasa‘s Jokhang Temple during the annual Monlam or Prayer Festival.^[d] He passed with honours and was awarded the Lharampa degree, the highest-level geshe degree, roughly equivalent to a doctorate in Buddhist philosophy.^[61][62]

Life as the Dalai Lama[edit source]

See also: Dalai LamaLhasa’s Potala Palace, today a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site, pictured in 2019

Historically the Dalai Lamas or their regents held political and religious leadership over Tibet from Lhasa with varying degrees of influence depending on the regions of Tibet and periods of history. This began with the 5th Dalai Lama‘s rule in 1642 and lasted until the 1950s (except for 1705–1750), during which period the Dalai Lamas headed the Tibetan government or Ganden Phodrang. Until 1912 however, when the 13th Dalai Lama declared the complete independence of Tibet, their rule was generally subject to patronage and protection of firstly Mongol kings (1642–1720) and then the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1720–1912).^[63]

During the Dalai Lama’s recognition process, the cultural Anthropologist Goldstein writes:

everything the Tibetans did during the selection process was designed to prevent China from playing any role.^[15][64]

Afterwards in 1939, at the age of four, the Dalai Lama was taken in a procession of lamas to Lhasa. The traditional ceremony enthroning the 14th Dalai Lama was attended by observing foreign dignitaries after a traditional Tibetan recognition processes. Sir Basil Gould, the British representative of the Government of India, has left a highly detailed account of the ceremonies surrounding the enthronement of the 14th Dalai Lama in Chapter 16 of his memoir, The Jewel in the Lotus.^[65] Despite historical records of eyewitness accounts, China’s Kuomintang government later presented false claims to have ratified the Dalai Lama, and that a Kuomintang representative, General Wu Zhongxin, presided over the ceremony.

Gould disputes the Chinese claim to have presided over it. He criticised the Chinese account as follows:

The report was issued in the Chinese Press that Mr Wu had escorted the Dalai Lama to his throne and announced his installation, that the Dalai Lama had returned thanks, and prostrated himself in token of his gratitude. Every one of these Chinese claims was false. Mr Wu was merely a passive spectator. He did no more than present a ceremonial scarf, as was done by the others, including the British Representative. But the Chinese have the ear of the world, and can later refer to their press records and present an account of historical events that is wholly untrue. Tibet has no newspapers, either in English or Tibetan, and has therefore no means of exposing these falsehoods.^[66]

Territorial extent of Tibet and approximate line of the Chinese Communist advance in 1950

Tibetan scholar Nyima Gyaincain wrote that based on Tibetan tradition, there was no such thing as presiding over an event, and wrote that the word “主持 (preside or organize)” was used in many places in communication documents. The meaning of the word was different than what we understand today. He added that Wu Zhongxin spent a lot of time and energy on the event, his effect of presiding over or organizing the event was very obvious.^{[clarification needed][67]}

After his enthronement, the Dalai Lama’s childhood was then spent between the Potala Palace and Norbulingka, his summer residence, both of which are now UNESCO World Heritage sites.

Chiang Kai Shek ordered Ma Bufang to put his Muslim soldiers on alert for an invasion of Tibet in 1942.^[68] Ma Bufang complied, and moved several thousand troops to the border with Tibet.^[69] Chiang also threatened the Tibetans with aerial bombardment if they worked with the Japanese. Ma Bufang attacked the Tibetan Buddhist Tsang monastery in 1941.^[70] He also constantly attacked the Labrang monastery.^[71]

In October 1950 the army of the People’s Republic of China marched to the edge of the Dalai Lama’s territory and sent a delegation after defeating a legion of the Tibetan army in warlord-controlled Kham. On 17 November 1950, at the age of 15, the 14th Dalai Lama assumed full temporal (political) power as ruler of Tibet.^[14]

Cooperation and conflicts with the People’s Republic of China[edit source]

An iconic photo showing Panchen Lama (left), Mao and Dalai Lama (right) at Qinzheng Hall on 11 September 1954, four days before they attended the 1st National People’s Congress.Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai meeting with Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama to celebrate Tibetan New Year, 1955Rare shot of an adult Dalai Lama (right) and Panchen Lama (left) without eyeglasses. 1954–1955.

The Panchen Lama and Dalai Lama had many conflicts throughout Tibetan history. Dalai Lama’s formal rule was brief. He sent a delegation to Beijing, which ratified the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet. He would later claim that the delegation did so without his authorization.^[62][72][73] He worked with the Chinese government: in September 1954, together with the 10th Panchen Lama he went to the Chinese capital to meet Mao Zedong and attend the first session of the National People’s Congress as a delegate, primarily discussing China’s constitution.^[74][75] On 27 September 1954, the Dalai Lama was selected as a Vice chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress,^[76][77] a post he officially held until 1964.^[78]

In 1956, on a trip to India to celebrate the Buddha’s Birthday, the Dalai Lama asked the Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, if he would allow him political asylum should he choose to stay. Nehru discouraged this as a provocation against peace, and reminded him of the Indian Government’s non-interventionist stance agreed upon with its 1954 treaty with China.^[62]

Long called a “splitist” and “traitor” by China,^[79] the Dalai Lama has attempted formal talks over Tibet’s status in China.^[80] In 2019, after the United States passed a law requiring the US to deny visas to Chinese officials in charge of implementing policies that restrict foreign access to Tibet, the US Ambassador to China “encouraged the Chinese government to engage in substantive dialogue with the Dalai Lama or his representatives, without preconditions, to seek a settlement that resolves differences”.^[81]

The Chinese Foreign Ministry has warned the US and other countries to “shun” the Dalai Lama during visits and often uses trade negotiations and human rights talks as an incentive to do so.^{[82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90]} China sporadically bans images of the Dalai Lama and arrests citizens for owning photos of him in Tibet.^[91][92][93] Tibet Autonomous Region government job candidates must strongly denounce the Dalai Lama, as announced on the Tibet Autonomous Region government’s online education platform, “Support the (Communist) Party’s leadership, resolutely implement the [Chinese Communist] Party’s line, line of approach, policies, and the guiding ideology of Tibet work in the new era; align ideologically, politically, and in action with the Party Central Committee; oppose any splittist tendencies; expose and criticize the Dalai Lama; safeguard the unity of the motherland and ethnic unity and take a firm stand on political issues, taking a clear and distinct stand”.^[94]

The Dalai Lama is a target of Chinese state sponsored hacking. Security experts claim “targeting Tibetan activists is a strong indicator of official Chinese government involvement” since economic information is the primary goal of private Chinese hackers.^[95] In 2009 the personal office of the Dalai Lama asked researchers at the Munk Center for International Studies at the University of Toronto to check its computers for malicious software. This led to uncovering GhostNet, a large-scale cyber spying operation which infiltrated at least 1,295 computers in 103 countries, including embassies, foreign ministries, other government offices, and organizations affiliated with the Dalai Lama in India, Brussels, London and New York, and believed to be focusing on the governments of South and Southeast Asia.^[96][97][98] A second cyberspy network, Shadow Network, was discovered by the same researchers in 2010. Stolen documents included a years worth of the Dalai Lama’s personal email, and classified government material relating to Indian, West Africa, the Russian Federation, the Middle East, and NATO. “Sophisticated” hackers were linked to universities in China, Beijing again denied involvement.^[99][100] Chinese hackers posing as The New York Times, Amnesty International and other organization’s reporters targeted the private office of the Dalai Lama, Tibetan Parliament members, and Tibetan nongovernmental organizations, among others, in 2019.^[101]

Exile to India[edit source]

Abandoned former quarters of the Dalai Lama at the Potala. The empty vestment placed on the throne symbolises his absenceIn 1967, Dalai Lama was out of India for the first time since he resided there from 1959. The Japanese government granted him visa on the condition he would not attack PRC while in Japan.^[102]

At the outset of the 1959 Tibetan uprising, fearing for his life, the Dalai Lama and his retinue fled Tibet with the help of the CIA‘s Special Activities Division,^[103] crossing into India on 30 March 1959, reaching Tezpur in Assam on 18 April.^[104] Some time later he set up the Government of Tibet in Exile in Dharamshala, India,^[105] which is often referred to as “Little Lhasa“. After the founding of the government in exile he re-established the approximately 80,000 Tibetan refugees who followed him into exile in agricultural settlements.^[61] He created a Tibetan educational system in order to teach the Tibetan children the language, history, religion, and culture. The Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts was established^[61] in 1959 and the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies^[61] became the primary university for Tibetans in India in 1967. He supported the refounding of 200 monasteries and nunneries in an attempt to preserve Tibetan Buddhist teachings and the Tibetan way of life.

The Dalai Lama appealed to the United Nations on the rights of Tibetans. This appeal resulted in three resolutions adopted by the General Assembly in 1959, 1961, and 1965,^[61] all before the People’s Republic was allowed representation at the United Nations.^[106] The resolutions called on China to respect the human rights of Tibetans.^[61] In 1963, he promulgated a democratic constitution which is based upon the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, creating an elected parliament and an administration to champion his cause. In 1970, he opened the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives in Dharamshala which houses over 80,000 manuscripts and important knowledge resources related to Tibetan history, politics and culture. It is considered one of the most important institutions for Tibetology in the world.^[107]

In 2016, there were demands from Indian citizens and politicians of different political parties to confer the Dalai Lama the prestigious Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian honour of India, which has only been awarded to a non-Indian citizen twice in its history.^[108]

In 2021, it was revealed that the Dalai Lama’s inner circle were listed in the Pegasus project data as having been targeted with spyware on their phones. Analysis strongly indicates potential targets were selected by the Indian government.^[109][110]

International advocacy[edit source]

The flag of Tibet (designed by the 13th Dalai Lama) shares the stage with Kundun on 10 April 2010 in Zurich, Switzerland

At the Congressional Human Rights Caucus in 1987 in Washington, D.C., the Dalai Lama gave a speech outlining his ideas for the future status of Tibet. The plan called for Tibet to become a democratic “zone of peace” without nuclear weapons, and with support for human rights.^{[citation needed]} The plan would come to be known as the “Strasbourg proposal”, because the Dalai Lama expanded on the plan at Strasbourg on 15 June 1988. There, he proposed the creation of a self-governing Tibet “in association with the People’s Republic of China.” This would have been pursued by negotiations with the PRC government, but the plan was rejected by the Tibetan Government-in-Exile in 1991.^{[citation needed]} The Dalai Lama has indicated that he wishes to return to Tibet only if the People’s Republic of China agrees not to make any precondition for his return.^[111] In the 1970s, the Paramount leader Deng Xiaoping set China’s sole return requirement to the Dalai Lama as that he “must [come back] as a Chinese citizen … that is, patriotism”.^[112]

The Dalai Lama celebrated his seventieth birthday on 6 July 2005. About 10,000 Tibetan refugees, monks and foreign tourists gathered outside his home. Patriarch Alexius II of the Russian Orthodox Church alleged positive relations with Buddhists. However, later that year, the Russian state prevented the Dalai Lama from fulfilling an invitation to the traditionally Buddhist republic of Kalmykia.^[113] The President of the Republic of China (Taiwan), Chen Shui-bian, attended an evening celebrating the Dalai Lama’s birthday at the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall in Taipei.^[114] In October 2008 in Japan, the Dalai Lama addressed the 2008 Tibetan violence that had erupted and that the Chinese government accused him of fomenting. He responded that he had “lost faith” in efforts to negotiate with the Chinese government, and that it was “up to the Tibetan people” to decide what to do.^[115]

Thirty Taiwanese indigenous peoples protested against the Dalai Lama during his visit to Taiwan after Typhoon Morakot and denounced it as politically motivated.^{[116][117][118][119]}

The Dalai Lama is an advocate for a world free of nuclear weapons, and currently serves on the Advisory Council of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation.

The Dalai Lama has voiced his support for the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which campaigns for democratic reformation of the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system.^[120] 

Teaching activities, public talks[edit source]

Gyatso during a visit to Washington, D.C. in 1997Gyatso giving teachings at Sissu, Lahaul

Despite becoming 80 years old in 2015, he maintains a busy international lecture and teaching schedule.^[121] His public talks and teachings are usually webcast live in multiple languages, via an inviting organisation’s website, or on the Dalai Lama’s own website. Scores of his past teaching videos can be viewed there, as well as public talks, conferences, interviews, dialogues and panel discussions.^[122]

The Dalai Lama’s best known teaching subject is the Kalachakra tantra which, as of 2014, he had conferred a total of 33 times,^[123] most often in India’s upper Himalayan regions but also in the Western world.^[124] The Kalachakra (Wheel of Time) is one of the most complex teachings of Buddhism, sometimes taking two weeks to confer, and he often confers it on very large audiences, up to 200,000 students and disciples at a time.^[124][125]

The Dalai Lama is the author of numerous books on Buddhism,^[126] many of them on general Buddhist subjects but also including books on particular topics like Dzogchen,^[127] a Nyingma practice.

In his essay “The Ethic of Compassion” (1999), the Dalai Lama expresses his belief that if we only reserve compassion for those that we love, we are ignoring the responsibility of sharing these characteristics of respect and empathy with those we do not have relationships with, which cannot allow us to “cultivate love.” He elaborates upon this idea by writing that although it takes time to develop a higher level of compassion, eventually we will recognize that the quality of empathy will become a part of life and promote our quality as humans and inner strength.^[128]

He frequently accepts requests from students to visit various countries worldwide in order to give teachings to large Buddhist audiences, teachings that are usually based on classical Buddhist texts and commentaries,^[129] and most often those written by the 17 pandits or great masters of the Nalanda tradition, such as Nagarjuna,^[130][131] Kamalashila,^[132][133] Shantideva,^[134] Atisha,^[135] Aryadeva^[136] and so on.The Dalai Lama’s main teaching room at DharamshalaDalai Lama conferring Kalachakra initiation at Bodh Gaya, India, December 1985Overview of teaching venue at Bodh Gaya Kalachakra, 1985

The Dalai Lama refers to himself as a follower of these Nalanda masters,^[137] in fact he often asserts that ‘Tibetan Buddhism’ is based on the Buddhist tradition of Nalanda monastery in ancient India,^[138] since the texts written by those 17 Nalanda pandits or masters, to whom he has composed a poem of invocation,^[139] were brought to Tibet and translated into Tibetan when Buddhism was first established there and have remained central to the teachings of Tibetan Buddhism ever since.^[140]

As examples of other teachings, in London in 1984 he was invited to give teachings on the Twelve Links of Dependent Arising, and on Dzogchen, which he gave at Camden Town Hall; in 1988 he was in London once more to give a series of lectures on Tibetan Buddhism in general, called ‘A Survey of the Paths of Tibetan Buddhism’.^[141] Again in London in 1996 he taught the Four Noble Truths, the basis and foundation of Buddhism accepted by all Buddhists, at the combined invitation of 27 different Buddhist organisations of all schools and traditions belonging to the Network of Buddhist Organisations UK.^[142]

In India, the Dalai Lama gives religious teachings and talks in Dharamsala^[135] and numerous other locations including the monasteries in the Tibetan refugee settlements,^[129] in response to specific requests from Tibetan monastic institutions, Indian academic, religious and business associations, groups of students and individual/private/lay devotees.^[143] In India, no fees are charged to attend these teachings since costs are covered by requesting sponsors.^[129] When he travels abroad to give teachings there is usually a ticket fee calculated by the inviting organization to cover the costs involved^[129] and any surplus is normally to be donated to recognised charities.^[144]

He has frequently visited and lectured at colleges and universities,^{[145][146][147]} some of which have conferred honorary degrees upon him.^[148][149]

Dozens of videos of recorded webcasts of the Dalai Lama’s public talks on general subjects for non-Buddhists like peace, happiness and compassion, modern ethics, the environment, economic and social issues, gender, the empowerment of women and so forth can be viewed in his office’s archive.^[150]

Interfaith dialogue[edit source]

The Dalai Lama met Pope Paul VI at the Vatican in 1973. He met Pope John Paul II in 1980, 1982, 1986, 1988, 1990, and 2003. In 1990, he met a delegation of Jewish teachers in Dharamshala for an extensive interfaith dialogue.^[151] He has since visited Israel three times, and in 2006 met the Chief Rabbi of Israel. In 2006, he met Pope Benedict XVI privately. He has met the Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr. Robert Runcie, and other leaders of the Anglican Church in London, Gordon B. Hinckley, who at the time was the president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), as well as senior Eastern Orthodox Church, Muslim, Hindu, Jewish, and Sikh officials. The Dalai Lama is also currently a member of the Board of World Religious Leaders as part of The Elijah Interfaith Institute^[152] and participated in the Third Meeting of the Board of World Religious Leaders in Amritsar, India, on 26 November 2007 to discuss the topic of Love and Forgiveness.^[153]

In 2009, the Dalai Lama inaugurated an interfaith “World Religions-Dialogue and Symphony” conference at Gujarat‘s Mahuva religions, according to Morari Bapu.^[154][155]

In 2010, the Dalai Lama, joined by a panel of scholars, launched the Common Ground Project,^[156] in Bloomington, Indiana (USA),^[157] which was planned by himself and Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad of Jordan during several years of personal conversations. The project is based on the book Common Ground between Islam and Buddhism.^[158]

In 2019, the Dalai Lama fully-sponsored the first-ever ‘Celebrating Diversity in the Muslim World’ conference in New Delhi on behalf of the Muslims of Ladakh.^[159]

Interest in science, and Mind and Life Institute[edit source]

Remains of Dalai Lama’s Baby Austin car. Lhasa, 1993Remains of Dalai Lama’s Dodge car. Lhasa, 1993

The Dalai Lama’s lifelong interest in science^[160][161] and technology^[162] dates from his childhood in Lhasa, Tibet, when he was fascinated by mechanical objects like clocks, watches, telescopes, film projectors, clockwork soldiers^[162] and motor cars,^[163] and loved to repair, disassemble and reassemble them.^[160] Once, observing the Moon through a telescope as a child, he realised it was a crater-pocked lump of rock and not a heavenly body emitting its own light as Tibetan cosmologists had taught him.^[160] He has also said that had he not been brought up as a monk he would probably have been an engineer.^[164] On his first trip to the west in 1973 he asked to visit Cambridge University‘s astrophysics department in the UK and he sought out renowned scientists such as Sir Karl Popper, David Bohm and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker,^[163] who taught him the basics of science.

The Dalai Lama sees important common ground between science and Buddhism in having the same approach to challenge dogma on the basis of empirical evidence that comes from observation and analysis of phenomena.^[165]

His growing wish to develop meaningful scientific dialogue to explore the Buddhism and science interface led to invitations for him to attend relevant conferences on his visits to the west, including the Alpbach Symposia on Consciousness in 1983 where he met and had discussions with the late Chilean neuroscientist Francisco J. Varela.^[163] Also in 1983, the American social entrepreneur and innovator R. Adam Engle,^[166] who had become aware of the Dalai Lama’s deep interest in science, was already considering the idea of facilitating for him a serious dialogue with a selection of appropriate scientists.^[167] In 1984 Engle formally offered to the Dalai Lama’s office to organise a week-long, formal dialogue for him with a suitable team of scientists, provided that the Dalai Lama would wish to fully participate in such a dialogue. Within 48 hours the Dalai Lama confirmed to Engle that he was “truly interested in participating in something substantial about science” so Engle proceeded with launching the project.^[168] Francisco Varela, having heard about Engle’s proposal, then called him to tell him of his earlier discussions with the Dalai Lama and to offer his scientific collaboration to the project.^[168] Engle accepted, and Varela assisted him to assemble his team of six specialist scientists for the first ‘Mind and Life’ dialogue on the cognitive sciences,^[169] which was eventually held with the Dalai Lama at his residence in Dharamsala in 1987.^[163][168] This five-day event was so successful that at the end the Dalai Lama told Engle he would very much like to repeat it again in the future.^[170] Engle then started work on arranging a second dialogue, this time with neuroscientists in California, and the discussions from the first event were edited and published as Mind and Life’s first book, “Gentle Bridges: Conversations with the Dalai Lama on the Sciences of Mind”.^[171]

As Mind and Life Institute‘s remit expanded, Engle formalised the organisation as a non-profit foundation after the third dialogue, held in 1990, which initiated the undertaking of neurobiological research programmes in the United States under scientific conditions.^[170] Over the following decades, as of 2014 at least 28 dialogues between the Dalai Lama and panels of various world-renowned scientists have followed, held in various countries and covering diverse themes, from the nature of consciousness to cosmology and from quantum mechanics to the neuroplasticity of the brain.^[172] Sponsors and partners in these dialogues have included the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,^[173] Johns Hopkins University,^[174] the Mayo Clinic,^[175] and Zurich University.^[176]

Apart from time spent teaching Buddhism and fulfilling responsibilities to his Tibetan followers, the Dalai Lama has probably spent, and continues to spend, more of his time and resources investigating the interface between Buddhism and science through the ongoing series of Mind and Life dialogues and its spin-offs than on any other single activity.^[162] As the institute’s Cofounder and the Honorary chairman he has personally presided over and participated in all its dialogues, which continue to expand worldwide.^[177]

These activities have given rise to dozens of DVD sets of the dialogues and books he has authored on them such as Ethics for the New Millennium and The Universe in a Single Atom, as well as scientific papers and university research programmes.^[178] On the Tibetan and Buddhist side, science subjects have been added to the curriculum for Tibetan monastic educational institutions and scholarship.^[179] On the Western side, university and research programmes initiated by these dialogues and funded with millions of dollars in grants from the Dalai Lama Trust include the Emory-Tibet Partnership,^[180] Stanford School of Medicine‘s Centre for Compassion and Altruism Research and Education (CCARES)^[181] and the Centre for Investigating Healthy Minds,^[182] amongst others.

In 2019, Emory University’s Center for Contemplative Sciences and Compassion-Based Ethics, in partnership with The Dalai Lama Trust and the Vana Foundation of India, launched an international SEE Learning (Social, Emotional and Ethical Learning) program in New Delhi, India, a school curriculum for all classes from kindergarten to Std XII that builds on psychologist Daniel Goleman‘s work on emotional intelligence in the early 1990s. SEE learning focuses on developing critical thinking, ethical reasoning and compassion and stresses on commonalities rather than on the differences.^{[183][184][185][186]}

In particular, the Mind and Life Education Humanities & Social Sciences initiatives have been instrumental in developing the emerging field of Contemplative Science, by researching, for example, the effects of contemplative practice on the human brain, behaviour and biology.^[178]

In his 2005 book The Universe in a Single Atom and elsewhere, and to mark his commitment to scientific truth and its ultimate ascendancy over religious belief, unusually for a major religious leader the Dalai Lama advises his Buddhist followers: “If scientific analysis were conclusively to demonstrate certain claims in Buddhism to be false, then we must accept the findings of science and abandon those claims.”^[187] He has also cited examples of archaic Buddhist ideas he has abandoned himself on this basis.^[160][188]

These activities have even had an impact in the Chinese capital. In 2013 an ‘academic dialogue’ with a Chinese scientist, a Tibetan ‘living Buddha’ and a Professor of Religion took place in Beijing. Entitled “High-end dialogue: ancient Buddhism and modern science” it addressed the same considerations that interest the Dalai Lama, described as ‘discussing about the similarities between Buddhism and modern science’.^[189]

Personal meditation practice[edit source]

The Dalai Lama uses various meditation techniques, including analytic meditation.^[190] He has said that the aim of meditation is “to maintain a very full state of alertness and mindfulness, and then try to see the natural state of your consciousness.”^[191]

Social stances[edit source]

Tibetan independence[edit source]

Despite initially advocating for Tibetan independence from 1961 to 1974, the Dalai Lama no longer supports it. Instead he advocates for more meaningful autonomy for Tibetans within the People’s Republic of China.^[192] This approach is known as the “Middle Way”. In a speech at Kolkata in 2017, the Dalai Lama stated that Tibetans wanted to stay with China and they did not desire independence. He said that he believed that China after opening up, had changed 40 to 50 percent of what it was earlier, and that Tibetans wanted to get more development from China.^[193] In October 2020, the Dalai Lama stated that he did not support Tibetan independence and hoped to visit China as a Nobel Prize winner. He said “I prefer the concept of a ‘republic’ in the People’s Republic of China. In the concept of republic, ethnic minorities are like Tibetans, The Mongols, Manchus, and Xinjiang Uyghurs, we can live in harmony”.^[194]

Abortion[edit source]

The Dalai Lama has said that, from the perspective of the Buddhist precepts, abortion is an act of killing.^[195] He has also clarified that in certain cases abortion could be considered ethically acceptable “if the unborn child will be retarded or if the birth will create serious problems for the parent”, which could only be determined on a case-by-case basis.^[196]

Death penalty[edit source]

The Dalai Lama has repeatedly expressed his opposition to the death penalty, saying that it contradicts the Buddhist philosophy of non-violence and that it expresses anger, not compassion.^[197] During a 2005 visit to Japan, a country which has the death penalty, the Dalai Lama called for the abolition of the death penalty and said in his address, “Criminals, people who commit crimes, usually society rejects these people. They are also part of society. Give them some form of punishment to say they were wrong, but show them they are part of society and can change. Show them compassion.”^[198] The Dalai Lama has also praised U.S. states that have abolished the death penalty.^[199]

Democracy, nonviolence, religious harmony, and Tibet’s relationship with India[edit source]

The Dalai Lama in Vienna, Austria, in 2012

The Dalai Lama says that he is active in spreading India’s message of nonviolence and religious harmony throughout the world. “I am the messenger of India’s ancient thoughts the world over.” He has said that democracy has deep roots in India. He says he considers India the master and Tibet its disciple, as great scholars went from India to Tibet to teach Buddhism. He has noted that millions of people lost their lives in violence and the economies of many countries were ruined due to conflicts in the 20th century. “Let the 21st century be a century of tolerance and dialogue.”^[200]

The Dalai Lama has also critiqued proselytization and certain types of conversion, believing the practices to be contrary to the fundamental ideas of religious harmony and spiritual practice.^{[201][202][203][204]} He has stated that “It’s very important that our religious traditions live in harmony with one another and I don’t think proselytizing contributes to this. Just as fighting and killing in the name of religion are very sad, it’s not appropriate to use religion as a ground or a means for defeating others.”^[205] In particular, he has critiqued Christian approaches to conversion in Asia, stating that he has “come across situations where serving the people is a cover for proselytization.”^[206] The Dalai Lama has labeled such practices counter to the “message of Christ” and has emphasized that such individuals “practice conversion like a kind of war against peoples and cultures.”^[203] In a statement with Hindu religious leaders, he expressed that he opposes “conversions by any religious tradition using various methods of enticement.”^[204]

In 1993, the Dalai Lama attended the World Conference on Human Rights and made a speech titled “Human Rights and Universal Responsibility”.^[207]

In 2001, in response to a question from a Seattle schoolgirl, the Dalai Lama said that it is permissible to shoot someone in self-defense (if the person was “trying to kill you”) and he emphasized that the shot should not be fatal.^[208]

In 2013, the Dalai Lama criticised Buddhist monks’ attacks on Muslims in Myanmar and rejected violence by Buddhists, saying: “Buddha always teaches us about forgiveness, tolerance, compassion. If from one corner of your mind, some emotion makes you want to hit, or want to kill, then please remember Buddha’s faith. … All problems must be solved through dialogue, through talk. The use of violence is outdated, and never solves problems.”^[209] In May 2013, he said “Really, killing people in the name of religion is unthinkable, very sad.”^[210] In May 2015, the Dalai Lama called on Myanmar’s Nobel Peace Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi to do more to help the Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar, said that he had urged Suu Kyi to address the Rohingyas’ plight in two previous private meetings and had been rebuffed.^[211]

In 2017, after Chinese dissident and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu Xiaobo died of organ failure while in Chinese government custody, the Dalai Lama said he was “deeply saddened” and that he believed that Liu’s “unceasing efforts in the cause of freedom will bear fruit before long.”^[212]

Diet and animal welfare[edit source]

People think of animals as if they were vegetables, and that is not right. We have to change the way people think about animals. I encourage the Tibetan people and all people to move toward a vegetarian diet that doesn’t cause suffering.— Dalai Lama^[213]

The Dalai Lama advocates compassion for animals and frequently urges people to try vegetarianism or at least reduce their consumption of meat. In Tibet, where historically meat was the most common food, most monks historically have been omnivores, including the Dalai Lamas. The Fourteenth Dalai Lama was raised in a meat-eating family but converted to vegetarianism after arriving in India, where vegetables are much more easily available and vegetarianism is widespread.^[214] He spent many years as a vegetarian, but after contracting hepatitis in India and suffering from weakness, his doctors told him to return to eating meat which he now does twice a week.^[215] This attracted public attention when, during a visit to the White House, he was offered a vegetarian menu but declined by replying, as he is known to do on occasion when dining in the company of non-vegetarians, “I’m a Tibetan monk, not a vegetarian”.^[216] His own home kitchen, however, is completely vegetarian.^[217]

In 2009, the English singer Paul McCartney wrote a letter to the Dalai Lama inquiring why he was not a vegetarian. As McCartney later told The Guardian, “He wrote back very kindly, saying, ‘my doctors tell me that I must eat meat’. And I wrote back again, saying, you know, I don’t think that’s right. […] I think now he’s vegetarian most of the time. I think he’s now being told, the more he meets doctors from the west, that he can get his protein somewhere else. […] It just doesn’t seem right – the Dalai Lama, on the one hand, saying, ‘Hey guys, don’t harm sentient beings… Oh, and by the way, I’m having a steak.’”^[218]

Economics and political stance[edit source]

The Dalai Lama has referred to himself as a Marxist and has articulated criticisms of capitalism.^{[219][220][221]}

I am not only a socialist but also a bit leftist, a communist. In terms of social economy theory, I am a Marxist. I think I am farther to the left than the Chinese leaders. [Bursts out laughing.] They are capitalists.^[219]

He reports hearing of communism when he was very young, but only in the context of the destruction of Communist Mongolia. It was only when he went on his trip to Beijing that he learned about Marxist theory from his interpreter Baba Phuntsog Wangyal.^[222] At that time, he reports, “I was so attracted to Marxism, I even expressed my wish to become a Communist Party member”, citing his favorite concepts of self-sufficiency and equal distribution of wealth. He does not believe that China implemented “true Marxist policy”,^[223] and thinks the historical communist states such as the Soviet Union “were far more concerned with their narrow national interests than with the Workers’ International“.^[224] Moreover, he believes one flaw of historically “Marxist regimes” is that they place too much emphasis on destroying the ruling class, and not enough on compassion.^[224] He finds Marxism superior to capitalism, believing the latter is only concerned with “how to make profits”, whereas the former has “moral ethics”.^[225] Stating in 1993:

Of all the modern economic theories, the economic system of Marxism is founded on moral principles, while capitalism is concerned only with gain and profitability. Marxism is concerned with the distribution of wealth on an equal basis and the equitable utilisation of the means of production. It is also concerned with the fate of the working classes—that is, the majority—as well as with the fate of those who are underprivileged and in need, and Marxism cares about the victims of minority-imposed exploitation. For those reasons the system appeals to me, and it seems fair. I just recently read an article in a paper where His Holiness the Pope also pointed out some positive aspects of Marxism.^[220][224]

Environment[edit source]

The Dalai Lama is outspoken in his concerns about environmental problems, frequently giving public talks on themes related to the environment. He has pointed out that many rivers in Asia originate in Tibet, and that the melting of Himalayan glaciers could affect the countries in which the rivers flow.^[226] He acknowledged official Chinese laws against deforestation in Tibet, but lamented they can be ignored due to possible corruption.^[227] He was quoted as saying “ecology should be part of our daily life”;^[228] personally, he takes showers instead of baths, and turns lights off when he leaves a room.^[226] Around 2005, he started campaigning for wildlife conservation, including by issuing a religious ruling against wearing tiger and leopard skins as garments.^[229][230] The Dalai Lama supports the anti-whaling position in the whaling controversy, but has criticized the activities of groups such as the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society (which carries out acts of what it calls aggressive nonviolence against property).^[231] Before the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, he urged national leaders to put aside domestic concerns and take collective action against climate change.^[232]

Sexuality[edit source]

The Dalai Lama’s stances on topics of sexuality have changed over time.

A monk since childhood, the Dalai Lama has said that sex offers fleeting satisfaction and leads to trouble later, while chastity offers a better life and “more independence, more freedom”.^[233] He has said that problems arising from conjugal life sometimes even lead to suicide or murder.^[234] He has asserted that all religions have the same view about adultery.^[235]

In his discussions of the traditional Buddhist view on appropriate sexual behavior, he explains the concept of “right organ in the right object at the right time”, which historically has been interpreted as indicating that oral, manual and anal sex (both homosexual and heterosexual) are not appropriate in Buddhism or for Buddhists. However, he also says that in modern times all common, consensual sexual practices that do not cause harm to others are ethically acceptable and that society should accept and respect people who are gay or transgender from a secular point of view.^[236] In a 1994 interview with OUT Magazine, the Dalai Lama clarified his personal opinion on the matter by saying, “If someone comes to me and asks whether homosexuality is okay or not, I will ask ‘What is your companion’s opinion?’ If you both agree, then I think I would say, ‘If two males or two females voluntarily agree to have mutual satisfaction without further implication of harming others, then it is okay.’”^[237] However, when interviewed by Canadian TV news anchor Evan Solomon on CBC News: Sunday about whether homosexuality is acceptable in Buddhism, the Dalai Lama responded that “it is sexual misconduct”.^[238]

In his 1996 book Beyond Dogma, he described a traditional Buddhist definition of an appropriate sexual act as follows: “A sexual act is deemed proper when the couples use the organs intended for sexual intercourse and nothing else … Homosexuality, whether it is between men or between women, is not improper in itself. What is improper is the use of organs already defined as inappropriate for sexual contact.”^[239] He elaborated in 1997, conceding that the basis of that teaching was unknown to him. He also conveyed his own “willingness to consider the possibility that some of the teachings may be specific to a particular cultural and historic context”.^[240]

In 2006, the Dalai Lama has expressed concern at “reports of violence and discrimination against” LGBT people and urged “respect, tolerance and the full recognition of human rights for all”.^[241]

Women’s rights[edit source]

See also: Women in Buddhism and Criticism of Buddhism § Women in Buddhism

In 2007, he said that the next Dalai Lama could possibly be a woman: “If a woman reveals herself as more useful the lama could very well be reincarnated in this form.”^[242]

In 2009, on gender equality and sexism, the Dalai Lama proclaimed at the National Civil Rights Museum in Memphis, Tennessee: “I call myself a feminist. Isn’t that what you call someone who fights for women’s rights?” He also said that by nature, women are more compassionate “based on their biology and ability to nurture and birth children”. He called on women to “lead and create a more compassionate world”, citing the good works of nurses and mothers.^[243]

At a 2014 appearance at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences in Mumbai, the Dalai Lama said, “Since women have been shown to be more sensitive to others’ suffering, their leadership may be more effective.”^[244]

In 2015, he said in a BBC interview that if a female succeeded him, “that female must be attractive, otherwise it is not much use,” and when asked if he was joking, replied, “No. True!” He followed with a joke about his current success being due to his own appearance.^[245]

Health[edit source]

In 2013, at the Culture of Compassion event in Derry, Northern Ireland, the Dalai Lama said that “Warm-heartedness is a key factor for healthy individuals, healthy families and healthy communities.”^[246]

Response to COVID-19[edit source]

In a 2020 statement in Time magazine on the COVID-19 pandemic, the Dalai Lama said that the pandemic must be combated with compassion, empirical science, prayer, and the courage of healthcare workers. He emphasized “emotional disarmament” (seeing things with a clear and realistic perspective, without fear or rage) and wrote: “The outbreak of this terrible coronavirus has shown that what happens to one person can soon affect every other being. But it also reminds us that a compassionate or constructive act – whether working in hospitals or just observing social distancing – has the potential to help many.”^[247][248]

Immigration[edit source]

In September 2018, speaking at a conference in Malmö, Sweden home to a large immigrant population, the Dalai Lama said “I think Europe belongs to the Europeans”, but also that Europe was “morally responsible” for helping “a refugee really facing danger against their life”. He stated that Europe has a responsibility to refugees to “receive them, help them, educate them”, but that they should aim to return to their places of origin and that “they ultimately should rebuild their own country”.^[249][250]

Speaking to German reporters in 2016, the Dalai Lama said there are “too many” refugees in Europe, adding that “Europe, for example Germany, cannot become an Arab country.” He also said that “Germany is Germany”.^[251][252]

Retirement and succession plans[edit source]

Main article: Succession of the 14th Dalai Lama

In May 2011, the Dalai Lama retired from the Central Tibetan Administration.^[253]

In September 2011, the Dalai Lama issued the following statement concerning his succession and reincarnation:

When I am about ninety I will consult the high Lamas of the Tibetan Buddhist traditions, the Tibetan public, and other concerned people who follow Tibetan Buddhism, and re-evaluate whether the institution of the Dalai Lama should continue or not. On that basis we will take a decision. If it is decided that the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama should continue and there is a need for the Fifteenth Dalai Lama to be recognized, responsibility for doing so will primarily rest on the concerned officers of the Dalai Lama’s Gaden Phodrang Trust. They should consult the various heads of the Tibetan Buddhist traditions and the reliable oath-bound Dharma Protectors who are linked inseparably to the lineage of the Dalai Lamas. They should seek advice and direction from these concerned beings and carry out the procedures of search and recognition in accordance with past tradition. I shall leave clear written instructions about this. Bear in mind that, apart from the reincarnation recognized through such legitimate methods, no recognition or acceptance should be given to a candidate chosen for political ends by anyone, including those in the People’s Republic of China.^[254][255]

In October 2011, the Dalai Lama repeated his statement in an interview with Canadian CTV News. He added that Chinese laws banning the selection of successors based on reincarnation will not impact his decisions. “Naturally my next life is entirely up to me. No one else. And also this is not a political matter”, he said in the interview. The Dalai Lama also added that he has not decided on whether he would reincarnate or be the last Dalai Lama.^[256]

In an interview with the German newspaper Welt am Sonntag published on 7 September 2014 the Dalai Lama stated “the institution of the Dalai Lama has served its purpose”, and that “We had a Dalai Lama for almost five centuries. The 14th Dalai Lama now is very popular. Let us then finish with a popular Dalai Lama.”^[257]

Gyatso has also expressed fear that the Chinese government would manipulate any reincarnation selection in order to choose a successor that would go along with their political goals.^[258] In response the Chinese government implied that it would select another Dalai Lama regardless of his decision.^[259]

CIA Tibetan program[edit source]

In October 1998, the Dalai Lama’s administration acknowledged that it received $1.7 million a year in the 1960s from the U.S. government through a Central Intelligence Agency program.^[260] When asked by CIA officer John Kenneth Knaus in 1995 to comment on the CIA Tibetan program, the Dalai Lama replied that though it helped the morale of those resisting the Chinese, “thousands of lives were lost in the resistance” and further, that “the U.S. Government had involved itself in his country’s affairs not to help Tibet but only as a Cold War tactic to challenge the Chinese.”^[261]

His administration’s reception of CIA funding has become one of the grounds for some state-run Chinese newspapers to discredit him along with the Tibetan independence movement.

In his autobiography Freedom in Exile, the Dalai Lama criticized the CIA again for supporting the Tibetan independence movement “not because they (the CIA) cared about Tibetan independence, but as part of their worldwide efforts to destabilize all communist governments“.^[262]

In 1999, the Dalai Lama said that the CIA Tibetan program had been harmful for Tibet because it was primarily aimed at serving American interests, and “once the American policy toward China changed, they stopped their help.”^[263]

Criticism[edit source]

Ties to India[edit source]

Stone Plaque at a plantation by Tenzin in Amaravathi

The Chinese press has criticized the Dalai Lama for his close ties with India. His 2010 remarks at the International Buddhist Conference in Gujarat saying that he was “Tibetan in appearance, but an Indian in spirituality” and referral to himself as a “son of India” in particular led the People’s Daily to opine, “Since the Dalai Lama deems himself an Indian rather than Chinese, then why is he entitled to represent the voice of the Tibetan people?”^[264] Dhundup Gyalpo of the Tibet Sun replied that Tibetan religion could be traced back to Nalanda in India, and that Tibetans have no connection to Chinese “apart … from a handful of culinary dishes”.^[265] The People’s Daily stressed the links between Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism had accused the Dalai Lama of “betraying southern Tibet to India”.^[264] In 2008, the Dalai Lama said for the first time that the territory India claims and administers as part of Arunachal Pradesh is part of India, citing the disputed 1914 Simla Accord.^[266]

Shugden controversy[edit source]

Main article: Dorje Shugden controversy

The Dorje Shugden Controversy reappeared in the Gelug school by the publication of the Yellow Book in 1976, containing stories about wrathful acts of Dorje Shugden against Gelugpas who also practiced Nyingma teachings. In response, the 14th Dalai Lama, a Gelugpa himself and advocate of an “inclusive” approach to the teachings of Tibetan Buddhism,^[267][268] started to speak out against the practice of Dorje Shugden in 1978.^[269]

The controversy has attracted attention in the West because of demonstrations held in 2008 and 2014 by Dorje Shugden practitioners. A 2015 Reuters investigation determined “that the religious sect behind the protests has the backing of the Communist Party” and that the “group has emerged as an instrument in Beijing’s long campaign to undermine support for the Dalai Lama”.^[270] After the Reuters investigation revealed that China backs it, the Shugden group halted operations and disbanded.^[271]

Gedhun Choekyi Nyima[edit source]

In April 2018, the Dalai Lama confirmed the official Chinese claims about Gedhun Choekyi Nyima by saying that he knew from “reliable sources” that the Panchen Lama he had recognized was alive and receiving normal education. He said he hoped that the Chinese-recognised Panchen Lama (Gyaincain Norbu) studied well under the guidance of a good teacher, adding that there were instances in Tibetan Buddhist tradition, of a reincarnated lama taking more than one manifestation.^[272][273]

Public image[edit source]

The Dalai Lama meeting with U.S. President Barack Obama in 2016Buddhist temple in Kalmykia, Russia

The Dalai Lama places highly in global surveys of the world’s most admired men, ranking with Pope Francis as among the world’s religious leaders cited as the most admired.^[274][275]

The Dalai Lama’s appeal is variously ascribed to his charismatic personality, international fascination with Buddhism, his universalist values, and international sympathy for the Tibetans.^[276] In the 1990s, many films were released by the American film industry about Tibet, including biopics of the Dalai Lama. This is attributed to both the Dalai Lama’s 1989 Nobel Peace Prize as well as to the euphoria following the Fall of Communism. The most notable films, Kundun and Seven Years in Tibet (both released in 1997), portrayed “an idyllic pre-1950 Tibet, with a smiling, soft-spoken Dalai Lama at the helm – a Dalai Lama sworn to non-violence“: portrayals the Chinese government decried as ahistorical.^[277]

The Dalai Lama has his own pages on Twitter,^[278] Facebook,^[279] and Instagram.^[280]The Dalai Lama meeting with Congressional leaders Nancy Pelosi and John Boehner in 2011

The Dalai Lama has tried to mobilize international support for Tibetan activities.^[281] The Dalai Lama has been successful in gaining Western support for himself and the cause of greater Tibetan autonomy, including vocal support from numerous Hollywood celebrities, most notably the actors Richard Gere and Steven Seagal, as well as lawmakers from several major countries.^[282] Photos of the Dalai Lama were banned after March 1959 Lhasa protests until after the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976. In 1996 the Chinese Communist Party once again reinstated the total prohibition of any photo of the 14th Dalai Lama. According to the Tibet Information Network, “authorities in Tibet have begun banning photographs of the exiled Dalai Lama in monasteries and public places, according to reports from a monitoring group and a Tibetan newspaper. Plainclothes police went to hotels and restaurants in Lhasa, the Tibetan capital, on 22 and 23 April and ordered Tibetans to remove pictures of the Dalai Lama …”^[283] The ban continues in many locations throughout Tibet today.

In the media[edit source]

The 14th Dalai Lama has appeared in several non-fiction films including:

• 10 Questions for the Dalai Lama (2006, documentary)
• Dalai Lama Renaissance (2007, documentary)
• The Sun Behind the Clouds (2010)
• Bringing Tibet Home (2013)
• Monk with a Camera (2014, documentary)
• Dalai Lama Awakening (2014)
• Compassion in Action (2014)

He has been depicted as a character in various other movies and television programs including:

• Kundun, 1997 film directed by Martin Scorsese
• Seven Years in Tibet, 1997 film starring Brad Pitt and David Thewlis
• Klovn “Dalai Lama” Season 1, Episode 4 (2005)
• Red Dwarf episode “Meltdown” (1991)^[284]
• Song of Tibet, 2000 film directed by Xie Fei.
• The Great Escape “14th Dalai Lama” (2018) on Epic
• “Dalai Lama”, episode of the Indian television series Mega Icons (2019–20) on National Geographic.^[285]

The Dalai Lama was featured on 5 March 2017, episode of the HBO late-night talk show Last Week Tonight, in which host John Oliver conducted a comedic interview with the Dalai Lama, focusing on the topics of Tibetan sovereignty, Tibetan self-immolations, and his succession plans.^{[286][relevant?]}

A biographical graphic novel, Man of Peace, also envisaging the Dalai Lama’s return to Tibet, was published by Tibet House US.^[287][288] The Extraordinary Life of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama: An Illuminated Journey, illustrations and text by artist Rima Fujita, narrated by the Dalai Lama, was published by Simon and Schuster in 2021.^[289]

Awards and honours[edit source]

The Congressional Gold Medal was awarded to Tenzin Gyatso in 2007The Dalai Lama receiving a Congressional Gold Medal in 2007. From left: Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi, Senate President pro temporeRobert Byrd and U.S. President George W. Bush

The Dalai Lama has received numerous awards and honors worldwide over his spiritual and political career.^{[290][291][292]} For a more complete list see Awards and honors presented to the 14th Dalai Lama.

After the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, the Norwegian Nobel Committee awarded him the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize.^[293] The Committee officially gave the prize to the Dalai Lama for “the struggle of the liberation of Tibet and the efforts for a peaceful resolution”^[294] and “in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi“.^[295]

He has also been awarded the:

• 1959 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership;^[296]
• 1994 Freedom Medal from the Roosevelt Institute;^[297]
• 2005 Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom;
• 2007 Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by the American Congress and President.^[298] The Chinese government declared this would have “an extremely serious impact” on relations with the United States;^[299]
• 2006 Order of the White Lotus by the Republic of Kalmykia for outstanding services and significant contribution to the spiritual revival and prosperity of the republic.^[300]
• 2007 Ahimsa Award from the Institute of Jainology in recognition of individuals who embody and promote the principles of Ahimsa (Non-violence); and in
• 2012, Order of the Republic of Tuva by the Tuvan Republic in recognition of the contribution to the upbringing of high spiritual and cultural tolerance, strengthening interreligious and interethnic harmony.^[300]
• 2012, the Templeton Prize.^[301] He donated the prize money to the charity Save the Children.^[302]

In 2006, he became one of only six people ever to be granted Honorary Citizenship of Canada. In 2007 he was named Presidential Distinguished Professor at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, the first time he accepted a university appointment.^[303]

Publications[edit source]

• My Land and My People: The Autobiography of His Holiness the Dalai Lama. Ed. David Howarth. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1962. ISBN 978-0446674218
• Deity Yoga: In Action and Performance Tantras. Ed. and trans. Jeffrey Hopkins. Snow Lion, 1987. ISBN 978-0-93793-850-8
• Tantra in Tibet. Co-authored with Tsong-kha-pa, Jeffrey Hopkins. Snow Lion, 1987. ISBN 978-0-93793-849-2
• The Dalai Lama at Harvard. Ed. and trans. Jeffrey Hopkins. Snow Lion, 1988. ISBN 978-0-93793-871-3
• Freedom in Exile: The Autobiography of the Dalai Lama, London: Little, Brown and Co., 1990, ISBN 978-0-349-10462-1
• My Tibet, co-authored with photographer Galen Rowell, 1990, ISBN 978-0-520-08948-8
• The Path to Enlightenment. Ed. and trans. Glenn H. Mullin. Snow Lion, 1994. ISBN 978-1-55939-032-3
• Essential Teachings, North Atlantic Books, 1995, ISBN 1556431929
• The World of Tibetan Buddhism, translated by Geshe Thupten Jinpa, foreword by Richard Gere, Wisdom Publications, 1995, ISBN 0-86171-100-9
• Tibetan Portrait: The Power of Compassion, photographs by Phil Borges with sayings by Tenzin Gyatso, 1996, ISBN 978-0-8478-1957-7
• Healing Anger: The Power of Patience from a Buddhist Perspective. Trans. Thupten Jinpa. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 1997, ISBN 978-1-55939-073-6
• The Gelug/Kagyü Tradition of Mahamudra, co-authored with Alexander Berzin. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 1997, ISBN 978-1-55939-072-9
• The Art of Happiness, co-authored with Howard C. Cutler, M.D., Riverhead Books, 1998, ISBN 978-0-9656682-9-3
• The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus, translated by Geshe Thupten Jinpa, Wisdom Publications, 1998, ISBN 978-0-86171-138-3
• Kalachakra Tantra: Rite of Initiation, edited by Jeffrey Hopkins, Wisdom Publications, 1999, ISBN 978-0-86171-151-2
• MindScience: An East–West Dialogue, with contributions by Herbert Benson, Daniel Goleman, Robert Thurman, and Howard Gardner, Wisdom Publications, 1999, ISBN 978-0-86171-066-9
• The Power of Buddhism, co-authored with Jean-Claude Carrière, 1999, ISBN 978-0-7171-2803-7
• Opening the Eye of New Awareness, Translated by Donald S. Lopez, Jr., Wisdom Publications, 1999, ISBN 978-0-86171-155-0
• Ethics for the New Millennium, Riverhead Books, 1999, ISBN 978-1-57322-883-1
• Consciousness at the Crossroads. Ed. Zara Houshmand, Robert B. Livingston, B. Alan Wallace. Trans. Thupten Jinpa, B. Alan Wallace. Snow Lion, 1999. ISBN 978-1-55939-127-6
• Ancient Wisdom, Modern World: Ethics for the New Millennium, Little, Brown/Abacus Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-349-11443-9
• Dzogchen: Heart Essence of the Great Perfection, translated by Geshe Thupten Jinpa and Richard Barron, Snow Lion Publications, 2000, ISBN 978-1-55939-219-8
• The Meaning of Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect, Translated by Jeffrey Hopkins, Wisdom Publications, 2000, ISBN 978-0-86171-173-4
• Answers: Discussions with Western Buddhists. Ed. and trans. Jose Cabezon. Snow Lion, 2001. ISBN 978-1-55939-162-7
• The Compassionate Life, Wisdom Publications, 2001, ISBN 978-0-86171-378-3
• Violence and Compassion: Dialogues on Life Today, with Jean-Claude Carriere, Doubleday, 2001, ISBN 978-0-385-50144-6
• Imagine All the People: A Conversation with the Dalai Lama on Money, Politics, and Life as it Could Be, Coauthored with Fabien Ouaki, Wisdom Publications, 2001, ISBN 978-0-86171-150-5
• An Open Heart, edited by Nicholas Vreeland; Little, Brown; 2001, ISBN 978-0-316-98979-4
• The Heart of Compassion: A Practical Approach to a Meaningful Life, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin: Lotus Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-940985-36-0
• Sleeping, Dreaming, and Dying, edited by Francisco Varela, Wisdom Publications, 2002, ISBN 978-0-86171-123-9
• Essence of the Heart Sutra: The Dalai Lama’s Heart of Wisdom Teachings, edited by Geshe Thupten Jinpa, Wisdom Publications, 2002, ISBN 978-0-86171-284-7
• The Pocket Dalai Lama. Ed. Mary Craig. Shambhala Pocket Classics, 2002. ISBN 978-1-59030-001-5
• The Buddhism of Tibet. Ed. and trans. Jeffrey Hopkins, Anne C. Klein. Snow Lion, 2002. ISBN 978-1-55939-185-6
• The Art of Happiness at Work, co-authored with Howard C. Cutler, M.D., Riverhead, 2003, ISBN 978-1-59448-054-6
• Stages of Meditation (commentary on the Bhāvanākrama). Trans. Ven. Geshe Lobsang Jordhen, Losang Choephel Ganchenpa, Jeremy Russell. Snow Lion, 2003. ISBN 978-1-55939-197-9
• Der Weg des Herzens. Gewaltlosigkeit und Dialog zwischen den Religionen (The Path of the Heart: Non-violence and the Dialogue among Religions), co-authored with Eugen Drewermann, PhD, Patmos Verlag, 2003, ISBN 978-3-491-69078-3
• The Path to Bliss. Ed. and trans. Thupten Jinpa, Christine Cox. Snow Lion, 2003. ISBN 978-1-55939-190-0
• How to Practice: The Way to a Meaningful Life, translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7434-5336-3
• The Wisdom of Forgiveness: Intimate Conversations and Journeys, coauthored with Victor Chan, Riverbed Books, 2004, ISBN 978-1-57322-277-8
• The New Physics and Cosmology: Dialogues with the Dalai Lama, edited by Arthur Zajonc, with contributions by David Finkelstein, George Greenstein, Piet Hut, Tu Wei-ming, Anton Zeilinger, B. Alan Wallace and Thupten Jinpa, Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-19-515994-3
• Dzogchen: The Heart Essence of the Great Perfection. Ed. Patrick Gaffney. Trans. Thupten Jinpa, Richard Barron (Chokyi Nyima). Snow Lion, 2004. ISBN 978-1-55939-219-8
• Practicing Wisdom: The Perfection of Shantideva‘s Bodhisattva Way, translated by Geshe Thupten Jinpa, Wisdom Publications, 2004, ISBN 978-0-86171-182-6
• Lighting the Way. Snow Lion, 2005. ISBN 978-1-55939-228-0
• The Universe in a Single Atom: The Convergence of Science and Spirituality, Morgan Road Books, 2005, ISBN 978-0-7679-2066-7
• How to Expand Love: Widening the Circle of Loving Relationships, translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins, Atria Books, 2005, ISBN 978-0-7432-6968-1
• Living Wisdom with His Holiness the Dalai Lama, with Don Farber, Sounds True, 2006, ISBN 978-1-59179-457-8
• Mind in Comfort and Ease: The Vision of Enlightenment in the Great Perfection. Ed. Patrick Gaffney. Trans. Matthieu Ricard, Richard Barron and Adam Pearcey. Wisdom Publications, 2007, ISBN 978-0-86171-493-3
• How to See Yourself as You Really Are, translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins, 2007, ISBN 978-0-7432-9045-6
• The Leader’s Way, co-authored with Laurens van den Muyzenberg, Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-1-85788-511-8
• My Spiritual Autobiography compiled by Sofia Stril-Rever [Fr] from speeches and interviews of the 14th Dalai Lama, 2009, ISBN 9781846042423
• Beyond Religion: Ethics for a Whole World, Mariner Books, 2012, ISBN 054784428X
• The Wisdom of Compassion: Stories of Remarkable Encounters and Timeless Insights, coauthored with Victor Chan, Riverhead Books, 2012, ISBN 978-0-55216923-3
• My Appeal to the World, presented by Sofia Stril-Rever, translated from the French by Sebastian Houssiaux, Tibet House US, 2015, ISBN 978-0-9670115-6-1
• The Book of Joy: Lasting Happiness in a Changing World, coauthored by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, 2016, ISBN 978-0-67007-016-9
• Behind the Smile: The Hidden Side of the Dalai Lama, by Maxime Vivas (author), translated from the French book Not So Zen, Long River Press 2013, ISBN 978-1592651405

Discography[edit source]

• Inner World (2020)

See also[edit source]

• China portal
• Asia portal
• Biography portal

• Awards and honors presented to the 14th Dalai Lama
• List of organizations of Tibetans in exile
• Chinese intelligence activity abroad#Modes of operation
• Dalai Lama Center for Peace and Education
• Foundation for Universal Responsibility of His Holiness the Dalai Lama
• History of Tibet (1950–present)
  • Human rights in Tibet
  • Annexation of Tibet by the People’s Republic of China
  • Protests and uprisings in Tibet since 1950
  • Sinicization of Tibet
• List of overseas visits by Tenzin Gyatso the 14th Dalai Lama outside India
• List of peace activists
• List of Nobel laureates
• List of refugees
• Templeton Prize lauretes
• List of rulers of Tibet
• Religious persecution
  • Freedom of religion in China#Buddhism
• Tibet Fund
• Tibet House
• Tibet Religious Foundation of His Holiness the Dalai Lama
• Tibetan art
• Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy
• Tibetan culture
• Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts

Notes[edit source]

1. ^ US: /ˈdɑːlaɪ ˈlɑːmə/, UK: /ˈdælaɪ ˈlɑːmə/
2. ^ Tibetan: ལྷ་མོ་དོན་འགྲུབ།, Wylie: Lha-mo Don-‘grub, ZYPY: Lhamo Tönzhub, Lhasa dialect: [ˈl̥ámo ˈtʰø̃ ̀ɖup]; simplified Chinese: 拉莫顿珠; traditional Chinese: 拉莫頓珠; pinyin: Lāmò Dùnzhū
3. ^ At the time of Tenzin Gyatso’s birth, Taktser was a town located in the Chinese province of Tsinghai (Qinghai) and was controlled by Ma Lin, a warlord allied with Chiang Kai-shek and appointed as governor of Qinghai Province by the Kuomintang.^{[27][28][29][30]}
4. ^ It has been noted that one of the examining debate partners of the 14th Dalai Lama was Kyabje Choden Rinpoche of Sera monastery (Jey College), who debated with him on the topic of the two truths doctrine (Wylie: bden pa gnyis).^[60]

Reference[edit source]

Citations[edit source]

1. ^ From Article 31 of Charter of the Tibetans-in-exile 1991: “The Council of Regency shall exercise executive powers and authority in the following circumstances: (1)(a) of His Holiness the Dalai Lama has not assumed or retained the powers of the head of the Tibetan Administration and the executive functions therein;”
2. ^ From chapter 5 of Constitution of Tibet(1963): “Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing provisions, His Holiness the Dalai Lama as the Head of the State shall:”
3. ^ 《国务院关于撤销达赖喇嘛·丹增嘉措职务的决定》（一九六四年十二月十七日国务院全体会议第一五一次会议通过）: “西藏自治区筹备委员会主任委员达赖喇嘛·丹增嘉措，一九五九年发动叛国的反革命武装叛乱。在逃往国外以后，组织流亡伪政府，公布伪宪法，支持印度反动派对我国的侵略，并积极组织和训练逃亡国外的残匪骚扰祖国边境。这一切都证明他早已自绝于祖国和人民，是一个死心塌地为帝国主义和外国反动派作走狗的叛国分子。国务院根据西藏地方人民的要求，决定撤销达赖喇嘛·丹增嘉措的西藏自治区筹备委员会主任委员和委员的职务。” On 17 December 1964, the 151st meeting of the plenary session of the State Council approved: The Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso, chairman of the Tibet Autonomous Region Preparatory Committee, launched a treasonous counter-revolutionary armed rebellion in 1959. After fleeing abroad, he organized a pseudo-government in exile, promulgated a pseudo-constitution, supported the Indian reactionaries’ aggression against our country, and actively organized and trained bandits who fled abroad to harass the motherland’s borders. All this proves that he has terminated himself from the motherland and the people, and he is a traitor who is desperately running for the imperialism and foreign reactionaries. The State Council decided to remove the Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso’s duties as chairman and member of the Tibet Autonomous Region Preparatory Committee in accordance with the request of the local people in Tibet.
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134. ^ “Compassion in Emptiness: Dalai Lama Teaches Shantideva” (DVD set). Oscilloscope. 7 May 2011. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2015. In 2010, His Holiness traveled to New York City to teach A Commentary on Bodhicitta by Nagarjuna and A Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life by Shantideva.
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Sources[edit source]

• Craig, Mary. Kundun: A Biography of the Family of the Dalai Lama (1997) Counterpoint. Calcutta. ISBN 978-1-887178-64-8.
• Bell, Sir Charles (1946). Portrait of the Dalai Lama Wm. Collins, London, 1st edition. (1987) Wisdom Publications, London. ISBN 086171055X.
• Iyer, Pico. The Open Road: The Global Journey of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama (2008) Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ISBN 978-0-307-38755-4
• Kay, David N. (2004). Tibetan and Zen Buddhism in Britain: Transplantation, development and adaptation. London: Routledge Curzon. pp. 44–52. ISBN 0-415-29765-6.
• Knaus, Robert Kenneth. Orphans of the Cold War: America and the Tibetan Struggle for Survival (1999) PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-891620-18-8.
• Laird, Thomas (2006). The Story of Tibet : Conversations with the Dalai Lama (1st ed.). New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-1827-1.
• Mills, Martin A. (2003), This turbulent priest: contesting religious rights and the state in the Tibetan Shugden controversy. In: Human Rights in Global Perspective, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-30410-5, archived from the original on 14 October 2019, retrieved 30 March 2020
• Mullin, Glenn H. (2001). The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnation, pp. 452–515. Clear Light Publishers. Santa Fe, New Mexico. ISBN 978-1-57416-092-5.
• Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). Tibet & Its History. 1st edition 1962. 2nd edition, Revised and Updated. Shambhala Publications, Boston. ISBN 978-0-87773-376-8 (pbk).
• Shakya, Tsering. The Dragon in the Land of Snows (1999) Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11814-9.
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External links[edit source]

14th Dalai Lamaat Wikipedia’s sister projects

• Media from Commons
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• Quotations from Wikiquote
• Texts from Wikisource
• Textbooks from Wikibooks
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• Official website 
• Teachings by the Dalai Lama
• A film clip “Dalai Lama Greeted By Nehru, Again Blasts Reds, 1959/04/30 (1959)” is available at the Internet Archive
• Photographs of the Dalai Lama’s visit to UC Santa Cruz, October 1979 from the UC Santa Cruz Library’s Digital Collections Archived 5 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine
• Appearances on C-SPAN
• Newspaper clippings about 14th Dalai Lama in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
• 14th Dalai Lama on Nobelprize.org 
• Quotes by the Dalai Lama

14th Dalai LamaDalai LamaBorn: 6 July 1935
Buddhist titles
Preceded byThubten Gyatso	Dalai Lama 1935–present Recognised in 1937; enthroned in 1940	Incumbent Heir: 15th Dalai Lama
Political offices
Preceded byNgawang Sungrab Thutob Regent	Ruler of Tibet 1950–1959 Part of the People’s Republic of China from 1951	fled to India during the 1959 rebellion
New office	Director of the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region 1956–1959	Succeeded byChoekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Erdenias Acting Director
New office	Head of state of the Central Tibetan Administration 1959–2012	Succeeded byLobsang Sangayas Sikyong
Awards and achievements
Preceded byUnited Nations Peacekeeping Forces	Laureate of the Nobel Peace Prize 1989	Succeeded byMikhail Gorbachev